59. XX a. kultūros bruožai

XX a. kultūros raidos sąlygos

Būdingas XX a. reiškinys – spartus Raštingų žmonių daugėjimas. Pradinis mokymas yra privalomas ne tik Europos ir Šiaurės Amerikos valstybėse, bet ir Lotynų Amerikos ir Azijos šalyse, net kai kur Afrikoje. Didžiumoje Vakarų ir socialistinių Europos valstybių antrojoje amžiaus pusėje įstatymais buvo nustatyta, kad vaikinai ir merginos turi įgyti vidurinį išsilavinimą arba bent lankyti mokyklas iki 16 ar 18 metų.

XX a. populiariausiu ir lengviausiai žmonėms prieinamu menu tampa kinas. Pasaulio kino ekranuose įsivyrauja Holivudo kino produkcija. Holivude gimsta ir kino žvaigždžių kultas. Ryškiausia 6-ojo dešimtmečio kino žvaigždė Merilina Monro (tikroji pavardė Norma Beiker), tapusi epochos simboliu. Kadras iš kino filmo „Kai kurie mėgsta karštai"" (rež. Bilis Vailderis). Sovietų Sąjungoje šis kino filmas buvo vadinamas „Džiaze tik merginos"
XX a. populiariausiu ir lengviausiai žmonėms prieinamu menu tampa kinas. Pasaulio kino ekranuose įsivyrauja Holivudo kino produkcija. Holivude gimsta ir kino žvaigždžių kultas. Ryškiausia 6-ojo dešimtmečio kino žvaigždė Merilina Monro (tikroji pavardė Norma Beiker), tapusi epochos simboliu. Kadras iš kino filmo „Kai kurie mėgsta karštai”” (rež. Bilis Vailderis). Sovietų Sąjungoje šis kino filmas buvo vadinamas „Džiaze tik merginos”

Po Antrojo pasaulinio karo kelis kartus padidėjo ne tik vidurinių mokyklų moksleivių, bet ir studentų skaičius. Pavyzdžiui, tik 1950-1970 m. JAV ir Italijoje studentų padaugėjo 2,3 karto, VFR – 2,7 karto, Didžiojoje Britanijoje – 3 kartus, Prancūzijoje – 3,7 karto. Vidurinio ir aukštojo mokslo masiškumas – tai didžiulis laimėjimas, nes iš didelio skaičiaus galima atrinkti pakankamai gerų specialistų mokslinio tyrimo laboratorijoms ir aukštosioms mokykloms. Tačiau sumažėjo išsilavinusios visuomenės dalies kūrybiškumas humanitarinės kultūros sferoje. Dar XIX a. pabaigoje ir XX a. pradžioje daugelis inteligentų bandydavo savo jėgas literatūroje, tapyboje, muzikoje. Dažnai jų rezultatai būdavo kuklūs, bet svarbus pats siekis tapti aktyviais kūrėjais, o ne pasyviais vartotojais. „Vartotojiškumo“ įsigalėjimas būdingas XX a. Tai išvirkščioji technikos pažangos pusė.

XIX a. paskutinį dešimtmetį atsirado kinas, XX a. 3-iąjį dešimtmetį paplito radijo transliacijos, po Antrojo pasaulinio karo – televizija. Nuolat didėjo knygų, laikraščių ir žurnalų tiražai. Visa tai, kaip ir kylantis gyvenimo lygis bei tobulėjančios susisiekimo, ryšių priemonės, augantis raštingumas, platiesiems gyventojų sluoksniams sudarė palankias sąlygas pažinti kultūros lobius, skatino, kad pasaulyje sparčiai paplistų jos naujovės. O tokių naujovių mūsų amžiuje radosi daug, buvo sukurta naujų literatūros ir meno šedevrų. Sąlygos pažinti kultūros lobius ir tapti jos kūrėjais buvo geresnės negu bet kada žmonijos istorijoje, įprastu reiškiniu tapo menininkų gastrolės ne tik savo krašte, bet ir tolimose šalyse. Televizija leidžia išvysti viso pasaulio spektaklius, kino filmus, koncertus. Tačiau sąlygos – tik prielaidos, kurios toli gražu neužtikrina kultūros suklestėjimo.

XX a. kultūrai gresia rimtas pavojus – komercinis požiūris, kada svarbiausiu, o dažnai ir vieninteliu kūrėjo vertės matu tampa tai, kiek jo kūrinys pritraukia žiūrovų ir duoda pelno. Komercinis požiūris naikina kultūrų įvairovę.

Stalinizmo ir nacizmo įtaka kultūrai

Aleksandras Solženicinas (g. 1918 m.), žymus rusų rašytojas, kalėjęs lageriuose ir savo kūriniuose aprašęs sovietinę teroro sistemą. 1970 m. Nobelio literatūrinės premijos lauretas, 1974 m. išsiųstas iš SSRS
Aleksandras Solženicinas (g. 1918 m.), žymus rusų rašytojas, kalėjęs lageriuose ir savo kūriniuose aprašęs sovietinę teroro sistemą. 1970 m. Nobelio literatūrinės premijos lauretas, 1974 m. išsiųstas iš SSRS

Kultūros raidą tarpukario metais deformavo stalinizmas SSRS ir nacizmas Vokietijoje. Ir vienur, ir kitur literatūra ir menas buvo panaudojami politiniams tikslams: rašytojams, dailininkams, aktoriams valdžia diktuodavo kūrinių temas, jie privalėjo šlovinti diktatorių darbus ir pačius diktatorius. Nepaklusniems buvo uždrausta kūrybinė veikla, juos persekiojo, o stalininėje SSRS neretai baudė ilgamečiu įkalinimu ar netgi mirtimi. Nacizmas, kaip žinoma, buvo sunaikintas 1945 m., o SSRS po Stalino mirties spaudimas rašytojams ir menininkams sušvelnėjo, bet komunistų partija ir toliau uoliai kontroliavo kultūrinį gyvenimą. Tiktai nepatikimų kultūros veikėjų jau nebežudydavo ir gana retai begalindavo. Juos, pvz., Nobelio premijos laureatą rašytoją A. Solženiciną, filosofą ir rašytoją A. Zinovjevą, išsiųsdavo į užsieni ir neleisdavo sugrįžti. Valdžia griežčiau ar švelniau kontroliavo kultūrą visose socialistinėse valstybėse.

Kultūros vienodumas ir įvairovė

Sidnėjaus operos teatro rūmai
Sidnėjaus operos teatro rūmai

Visais laikais pasaulyje egzistavo skirtingos kultūros. Vienos jų turėjo įtakos didžiuliams regionams, kitos likdavo izoliuotos. Ypatingas vaidmuo teko Vakarų Europos kultūrai, kuri nuo XV a. pabaigos-XVI a. pradžios – didžiųjų geografinių atradimų epochos – išplito kituose žemynuose. Tokią įvykių raidą skatino ne vien europiečių kolonizacija, bet ir Vakarų mokslo ir technikos laimėjimai. Pastarieji lėmė, jog savitos ir senos kultūros šalys, kaip antai Japonija ir Kinija, perėmė Vakarų kultūros elementus. Tačiau jos išsaugojo savo geriausias tradicijas.

Vis dėlto ir šios Tolimųjų Rytų valstybės išgyvena šiuolaikinės komercinės kultūros antplūdį, tiktai jos, kaip ir musulmoniškos šalys, bando gintis. Kituose pasaulio regionuose komercinė Vakarų kultūra tiesiog išstumia vietinę, kuri negali konkuruoti su amerikiečių muzika, filipais, televizijos laidomis. Mat JAV kino, garso įrašų, televizijos kompanijos skiria milijardus dolerių savo produkcijai reklamuoti. Jau daug metų tęsiasi JAV ginčas su Europos Sąjunga dėl pastarosios vadovaujančių institucijų nutarimų, įpareigojančių televizijos stotis transliuoti ne mažiau kaip 50 proc. europiečių gamybos filmų ir kitų laidų. Vakarų Europa bent šiek tiek priešinasi amerikiečių komercinės kultūros ekspansijai, o Afrikoje, Lotynų Amerikoje ir buvusiose socialistinėse šalyse ir šito nedaroma. Holivudo filmų konkurencija sužlugdė Vietos kinematografiją net Rusijoje ir Lenkijoje, nors šių Šalių kino menas buvo garsus pasaulyje. Didėjantis amerikiečių komercinės, masinės kultūros antplūdis kelia didžiulę grėsmę pasaulio kultūrinei įvairovei.

Elitinės ir masinės kultūros tendencijos

Populiariojo meno srovė
Populiariojo meno srovė

Iki XIX a. liaudies kultūra ir profesionalioji, arba vadinamoji elitinė kultūra, viena su kita mažai siejosi. Menininkai tada dažnai buvo išlaikomi valdovų ar didikų, kurių užsakymus jie atlikdavo. Tik XIX a. kultūros kūrėjai tapo nepriklausomesni. Mat plintant švietimui, kylant ūkio gerovei, smarkiai padaugėjo išsilavinusių ir bent kiek pasiturinčių žmonių, kurie galėjo pirkti knygų, lankyti teatrus, koncertus, dailės parodas. Todėl dailininkai, rašytojai, muzikai jau galėjo pragyventi iš savo kūrybos, jiems nebereikėjo valdovų ir didikų globos.

XIX a. profesionalios kultūros kūrėjai dažnai naudojo liaudies meno motyvus. Tai darė jų kūrybą suprantamą daugeliui, netgi nedidelio išsilavinimo gyventojams. Padėtis pasikeitė XX a. pradžioje. Viena vertus, pasireiškė menininkų, vėliau ir literatų, siekimas eksperimentuoti, rasti neįprastas vaizdavimo formas, nutraukti saitus su klasikinėmis tradicijomis. XX a. pradžioje Vakaruose ėmė reikštis įvairios modernizmo srovės. Vėliau atsirado dailės kryptis, visiškai nustojusi vaizduoti realų pasaulį, – abstrakcionizmas. Jos teoretikai teigė, kad dailininkas turi perteikti savo išgyvenimus ir įvaizdžius abstrakčiomis formomis. Modernistų kūryba dažniausiai buvo ir lieka nesuprantama platesniesiems visuomenės sluoksniams.

Tam tikra reakcija į elitinės kultūros kūrėjų eksperimentus tapo 8-ąjį dešimtmetį atsiradęs vadinamasis postmodernizmas. Tai labai prieštaringas reiškinys. Mene ir literatūroje jis pasireiškia perdėto modernumo atmetimu, grįžimu prie skelbtų jau atgyvenusiomis praeities formų ir stilių, netgi savotiško jų pamėgdžiojimo. Postmodernizmo pavyzdžiu grožinėje literatūroje galėtų būti įžymaus šiuolaikinio italų rašytojo Umberto Eko romanai.

XX a. susiformavo „masinė“ komercinė kultūra, kurios platintojams svarbu vien pelnas, gaunamas parduodant tos kultūros produkciją – beletristiką, kino ir televizijos filmus, muzikos įrašus ir kt. Žinoma, masinė kultūra būna ir geresnė, ir blogesnė, tačiau dažnai gerąją išstumia blogoji. Daugelio reklamos beatodairiškai garsinamų „žvaigždžių“ asmenybės ir jų kūryba išsiskiria tik visokiais skandalais. Tačiau žmonės gali rinktis, tik reikia, kad jie šią galimybę įsisąmonintų ir ja pasinaudotų. Juk Holivude ir Vakarų Europoje sukuriama taip pat turinčių didelį pasisekimą filmų, kuriuose iškeliamos skausmingos socialinės ir politinės problemos, teigiami humanistiniai idealai. Galima būtų išskirti pasaulinio garso režisierius, kaip antai Stivenas Spilbergas („Šindlerio sąrašas“), Oliveris Stounas („Niksonas“, „J. F. K.“, „Komandante“), Romanas Polanskis („Pianistas“).

Klausimai

  1. Apibūdinkite švietimo ir aukštojo mokslo raidą XX a. antrojoje pusėje ir jo prieštaringus padarinius.
  2. Kokie neigiami faktoriai veikė kultūrą stalininėje SSRS ir nacistinėje Vokietijoje?
  3. Apibūdinkite šiuolaikiną elitinę ir komercinę masinę kultūrą.

Įžymus šiuolaikinis Vakarų filosofas Karlas Raimondas Poperis apie neigiamą televizijos poveikį

Neteisinga būtų peikti vaikus, kad jie dienų dienas pratupi prie televizorių ekranų. Ne vaikai kalti, kad jų pasaulį taip darko ši masinės informacijos priemonė.

Lygiai taip pat, kaip televizija yra blogio jėga, ji galėtų tapti gėrio jėga. Deja, tai beveik neįtikimas dalykas. Priežastis paprasta: apskritai bet kokią kultūrinę jėgą yra be galo sunku priversti tarnauti gėriui. Trumpai tariant, kur kas lengviau yra surasti žmonių, kurie dvidešimt valandų per dieną rengtų ir transliuotų vidutinišką arba blogą produkciją, nei vieną ar dvi valandas gerą. <…> Laidų lygis yra labai smukęs, nes televizininkai, siekdami patraukti žiūrovų dėmesį, transliuoja menkavertes arba neva sensacingas laidas. Bet juk sensacinga laida vargu ar yra gera laida <…> Auga tokių kriminalinių nusikaltimų skaičius, kurių vykdytojai atvirai prisipažįsta, kad nusikalsti juos paskatinusi televizija. Didžiulį atgarsį sukėlė 1993 m. vasario mėn. įvykis Liverpulyje: du dešimtmečiai berniukai pagrobė ir nužudė dvejų metų vaiką. Be jokios motyvacijos. Įvykis sukėlė skandalą – tai buvo aliarmo signalas visuomenei – pavyzdžio neturintis nusikaltimas. Nusikaltimas buvo siejamas su televizijos ekranuose nuolat rodomu smurtu <…>. Ištisas valandas vaikas kasdien mato žiaurumus, prievartą, žudynes. Iš patyrimo noriu pasakyti – tai turi lemiamos reikšmės: televizija gamina ir skleidžia smurtą ten, kur šiaip jau jo nebūtų.

Televizija jau senokai yra tapusi milžiniška politine jėga. Galima būtų net teigti – ji apskritai tapo visų svarbiausia jėga, kurią būtų galima lyginti gal tik su pačiu Dievu. Taip ir bus, jei ir toliau leisime piktnaudžiauti šia masinės informacijos priemone.

Demokratijai televizija yra tapusi pernelyg stipria, neįveikiama jėga. Jei televizijos piktnaudžiavimams nebus padarytas galas, neišliks gyva jokia demokratija.


  1. Kaip filosofas vertina televizijos vaidmenį? Ar sutinkate su pareikšta nuomone?

Apie JAV švietimo sistemos veiklos rezultatus

1993 m. rugsėjo mėn. buvo paskelbti JAV švietimo departamento tyrimų programos „JAV gyventojų skaitymo ir rašymo įgūdžiai“ rezultatai. Jų išvados tiesiog pritrenkė amerikiečius: pasirodė, kad JAV gyvena 27 mln. analfabetų ir 45 mln. vadinamųjų funkcinių analfabetų. Beveik pusė iš 191 mln. suaugusių amerikiečių negalėjo atlikti paprasto veiksmo, kaip antai užpildyti banko čekį. Tiktai 4 proc. sugebėjo pasinaudodami elektroniniais kalkuliatoriais apskaičiuoti tapetų išklijavimo kainą, žinodami kambario matmenis ir vieno kvadratinio metro tapetų kainą.

Vykdantys tyrimus mokslininkai buvo priversti taikyti naują analfabetizmo apibūdinimą. Tradiciškai analfabetu laikomas asmuo, kuris vietoje parašo deda kryželį. Švietimo departamento testai įrodė, jog daugelis asmenų moka skaityti technine šio žodžio prasme, tai yra sugeba iššifruoti žodžius, bet jiems trūksta įgūdžių, būtinų tam, kad pasinaudotų žodžių teikiama informacija (tai ir yra tie 45 milijonai funkcinių analfabetų). įdomu, jog pusė asmenų, parodžiusių blogiausius rezultatus, yra vidurinių mokyklų abiturientai. Kai kurie asmenys su šių mokyklų diplomais išvis nemokėjo nei skaityti, nei rašyti.

Mokymo lygis Jungtinėse Amerikos Valstijose yra daug žemesnis negu Vakarų Europoje. 40 proc. Europos mokyklų moksleivių išsprendžia tokius matematikos uždavinius, kokių nesugeba įveikti 90 proc. amerikiečių moksleivių. 1947 m. 45 proc. JAV moksleivių sugebėjo rasti žemėlapyje Europą o 1988 m. tokių buvo jau tik 25 proc. Vykstant karui Persų įlankos regione 1991 m., kada 500 tūkst JAV karių buvo fronte, net 80 proc. amerikiečių nežinojo, kur yra Irakas.

Tokia padėtis egzistuoja nepaisant to, jog 9-ąjį dešimtmetį Jungtinės Amerikos Valstijos švietimo reikalams išleido 420 mlrd. dolerių. Vidutinėmis išlaidomis vieno studento mokymui JAV pralenkia pasaulyje tik Šveicarija.


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2019-02-16

169 atsakymų (-ai) į temą "59. XX a. kultūros bruožai"

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