Baudžiavos panaikinimo prielaidos
1855 m. Rusijos caru tapo Aleksandras II. Rusijos kaimas buvo nualintas. Betrūko tik kibirkštėlės, kad kiltų naujas valstiečių karas. Ilgai užsibuvusi baudžiava stabdė krašto pažangą. Naujasis caras turėjo viešai Maskvos bajorijos atstovams pareikšti, kad teksią naikinti baudžiavą. 1857 m. pradžioje buvo įsteigtas Slaptasis komitetas baudžiavos panaikinimo projektams rengti ir svarstyti. Bet valdžia norėjo parodyti, kad baudžiavos panaikinimas yra savanorišką bajorijos auka ir tai daroma jos iniciatyva. Todėl 1857 m. pabaigoje caras pasirašė specialų raštą — reskriptą Vilniaus generalgubernatoriui. Šis raštas leido vakarinių gubernijų bajorams svarstyti baudžiavos panaikinimo problemą, mat valdžia prisiminė, kad kadaise Vilniaus, Kauno, Gardino gubernijų dvarininkai buvo siūlę panaikinti baudžiavą. Iki tol Rusijoje buvo draudžiama viešai apie tai kalbėti. Svarstant projektus, bajorų grupuotės nesutarė dėl baudžiavos panaikinimo formų ir nuolaidų valstiečiams.
1861 m. vasario 19 d. manifestas
1861 m. vasario 19 d. caras pasirašė teisinius baudžiavos panaikinimo aktus — „Manifestą” ir Nuostatus”. Buvę baudžiauninkai gavo asmens laisvę, kai kurias turtines teises. Dabar jie be dvarininko sutikimo galėjo verstis amatais, prekyba, vykti uždarbiauti, įsigyti kilnojamojo ir nekilnojamojo turto, sudarinėti įvairius civilinius sandėrius, būti ieškovais teisme, mokytis, stoti tarnybon, pereiti į miestiečių ar pirklių luomus, laisvai tuoktis ir tvarkyti kitus šeimos reikalus.
Baudžiavos panaikinimo sąlygos
Valstiečiai gavo teisę išsipirkti sodybą ir daržą prie jos. Visos žemės, neišskiriant ir valstiečių naudotų sklypų, savininkais liko dvarininkai. Pagal įstatymus jie galėjo leisti valstiečiams išsipirkti skirtinį sklypą. Jis paprastai būdavo mažesnis už tą, kuriuo valstietis naudojosi iki reformos. Skirtinį žemės sklypą valstietis pradėdavo išsipirkti tik po kelerių metų. Ligi tol jis buvo dvarininko laikinasis prievolininkas, t. y. pusiau baudžiauninkas, ir mokėjo savo buvusiam savininkui piniginę duoklę, ėjo lažą. Paskutiniai laikinieji prievolininkai buvo panaikinti tik 1881 m.
Išpirka buvo apskaičiuojama ne pagal žemės kainą rinkoje, bet pagal valstiečio duoklės ir kitų prievolių dvarininkui dydį. Todėl ji buvo 2—3 kartus didesnė negu žemės kaina rinkoje. Išpirkai sumokėti valstiečiui pinigų skolino iždas. Paskolą su procentais valstietis turėjo grąžinti per 49 metus, kasmet mokėdamas didelius išperkamuosius mokesčius. Nuo 1907 m. sausio 1 d. išperkamieji mokesčiai buvo panaikinti.
Zemstvų ir miestų reforma
Panaikinus baudžiavą, Rusijoje išliko dvarininkų žemėvalda. Valstiečių išsiperkama žemė netapdavo jų privatine nuosavybe, nes kaime išliko bendruomeninė žemėvalda. Iš kaimo valstietis galėjo išeiti tik bendruomenei leidus, t. y. jis neturėjo tikros užsiėmimo ir gyvenamosios vietos pasirinkimo laisvės.
Kiek vėliau nuo baudžiavos buvo atleisti ir valstybiniai, ir caro rūmų valstiečiai. Rusijos imperijos pakraščiuose, kur gyveno nerusų tautybės žmonės, baudžiavos panaikinimas turėjo savų ypatumų.
1861 m. baudžiavos panaikinimas buvo labai svarbus Rusijai pereinant nuo feodalinio ūkio prie laisvos verslininkystės.
Panaikinus baudžiavą, reikėjo pertvarkyti ir daugelį visuomenės gyvenimo sričių — vietinį valdymą, teismus, švietimą, finansus, kariuomenę. Prasidėjo reformų laikai. Pirmiausia Rusijoje buvo įvykdyta vietinio valdymo reforma — įvestos zemstvos. Jos turėjo geriau tvarkyti vietinį ūkį ir padėti administracijai valdyti kraštą. 1864 m. paskelbus zemstvų nuostatus, gubernijose ir apskrityse buvo kuriamos visų luomų renkamos zemstvų institucijos: susirinkimai (tvarkomoji grandis) ir valdybos (vykdomoji grandis). Zemstvų rinkimai buvo daugiapakopiai ir vyko atskirai keliose kurijose. Rinkimų sistema buvo grindžiama gana dideliu turto cenzu. Formaliai zemstvos buvo neluominės organizacijos. Bet kurijos iš tikrųjų buvo sudaromos pagal luomus. Daugumoje zemstvų vyravo bajorijos atstovai.
Zemstvos tiesiogiai nedalyvavo valdyme. Jos nebuvo ir tikros savivaldos įstaigos, nes veikė prižiūrimos gubernatoriaus. Zemstvos tvarkė ir tiesė kelius, samdė gydytojus, mokytojus, steigė ir statė ligonines, prieglaudas, mokyklas, kai kuriose vietose kūrė paštą, globojo prekybą, pramonę, verslus ir pan.
1870 m. buvo pertvarkytas ir miestų valdymas. Dar nuo Jekaterinos II laikų gyvavusi luominė miesto dūmą buvo pakeista visiems luomams atstovaujančiomis savivaldos institucijomis: tvarkomąsias funkcijas turinčia miesto dūmą ir miesto valdyba, kuriai vadovavo dūmos pirmininkas. Visi rinkėjai pagal turto cenzą buvo suskirstyti į tris nelygiavertes kurijas.
Miestų dūmos ir valdybos tvarkė visus ūkio reikalus: taisė ir prižiūrėjo gatves, aikštes, turgavietes, rūpinosi ugniagesių išlaikymu, sveikatos apsauga, mokyklomis, globojo prekybą ir pramonę. Miestų dūmos taip pat turėjo skirti lėšų policijai, kareivinėms ir kalėjimams išlaikyti. Miestų dūmos ir valdybos buvo savarankiškesnės už zemstvas.
Teismų ir švietimo reforma
Bene nuosekliausia buvo 1864 m. teismų reforma. Nauji teismų nuostatai skelbė, kad panaikinami senieji feodaliniai luominiai teismai ir kuriami bendri visų luomų žmonėms teismai.
Teismų reforma ne tik sukūrė naują teismų sistemą (taikos teismas, apskrities taikos teisėjų suvažiavimas, apygardos teismas, teismo rūmai), bet ir įvedė visiškai naują teisenos tvarką. Teismuose galėjo vykti šalių varžytinės (teisminis ginčas tarp valstybės kaltintojo — prokuroro ir gynybos atstovo — prisiekusiojo patikėtinio arba advokato). Teismo procesas pasidarė atviras, viešas, prieinamas publikai. Baudžiamosiose bylose teisiamojo kaltę pagal teismo pateiktus klausimus nustatydavo prisiekusieji tarėjai, o teismas remdamasis jų sprendimu tik suformuluodavo nuosprendį.
Zemstvų ir teismų reformos nebuvo įgyvendintos daugelyje Rusijos imperijos pakraščių, tose gubernijose, kuriose gyveno mažai rusų.
Svarbi buvo švietimo reforma, pašalinusi iki tol buvusius luominius apribojimus siekiantiesiems mokslo. 1863 m. valdžia paskelbė naujus Universitetų nuostatus. Nuo tol bet kurio luomo atstovai be apribojimų galėjo stoti į universitetą arba į bet kurią aukštąją technikos mokyklą. Tačiau moterys į šias aukštąsias mokyklas nebuvo priimamos. 1869 m. pradėti steigti aukštieji moterų kursai, kuriuose buvo mokoma pagal universitetų programas.
1864 m. buvo patvirtinti Pradinių liaudies mokyklų nuostatai. Tose mokyklose mokslas buvo nemokamas. Jas dažniausiai lankė valstiečių ir kitų žemesniųjų luomų vaikai. Tais pačiais metais įsigaliojo ir naujas Gimnazijų statutas. Visų luomų vaikai galėjo mokytis klasikinėje bei realinėje gimnazijoje, taip pat nepilnoje gimnazijoje — progimnazijoje. Mokslas šiose vidurinėse mokyklose buvo mokamas. Rusijoje pagaliau buvo sukurta nuosekli švietimo sistema.
Karinė reforma
Buvo įvykdyta ir karinė reforma. Karybos pertvarkymai prasidėjo 1862 m. ir truko iki 1874 m., kol buvo įvesta visuotinė karinė prievolė vietoje iki tol buvusio prievartinio rekrutų rinkimo į kariuomenę. Nuo tol Rusijos kariuomenėje tarnavo visų luomų žmonės. Karininkais galėjo būti ne tik bajorai, bet ir kitų luomų atstovai, baigę gimnaziją. Karininkams rengti buvo įsteigta karinių mokymo įstaigų: karo gimnazįjų, kariūnų ir karo mokyklų. Tačiau Rusijos kariuomenėje vis dėlto negalėjo tarnauti Šiaurės tautelių, Kazachstano ir Vidurinės Azijos, kai kiurių Šiaurės Kaukazo tautų žmonės.
Karinė reforma sustiprino Rusijos kariuomenę, sudarė sąlygas turėti apmokytą rezervą.
Nors Aleksandro II reformos nebuvo visai nuoseklios, užbaigtos, tačiau jos parengė Rusiją gyventi europinės raidos sąlygomis.
Po XIX a. 8-o—9-o dešimtmečio pradžios politinių įvykių, kuriuos sukėlė tuo metu sustiprėjęs revoliucinės radikaliosios Rusijos inteligentijos — narodnikų — judėjimas, naujas caras Aleksandras III sustabdė kai kurias reformas.
Rusija nukariauja Vidurinę Aziją
Aleksandro II valdymo laikais (1855—1881 m.) galutinai susiformavo Rusijos imperijos teritorija. Tuo metu Rusija prisijungė daug žemių Vidurinėje Azijoje, Amūro upės regione ir Tolimuosiuose Rytuose.
Europos sostinėse bene daugiausia atgarsių sukėlė Rusijos skverbimasis į Vidurinę Aziją. XIX a. viduryje ji pasidarė Rusijos ir Anglijos tarpusavio kovos arena.
Vidurinėje Azijoje buvo įsikūręs Bucharos emyratas, Chyvos ir Kokando chanystės bei laisvos, bet dar neturinčios savo valstybės turkmėnų gentys. Rusija skverbėsi į Vidurinę Aziją ne tiek dėl ekonominių, kiek dėl politinių motyvų. Ji varžėsi su Anglija dėl įtakos, be to, norėjo užkariauti Afganistaną. Savo veiksmus Rusija teisino Anglijos bandymu „sulipdyti” antirusišką trijų Vidurinės Azijos valstybių koaliciją.
Rusija pradėjo ekspansiją į Vidurinę Aziją 1854 m., kuomet prisijungė visą Kazachstaną. Per gana trumpą laiką (1864—1873 m.) rusų daliniai sumušė prastai ginkluotą ir neapmokytą Kokando, Bucharos ir Chyvos kariuomenę. Jų valdovai pripažino save Rusijos vasalais. Kai kurios šių valstybių teritorijos buvo prijungtos prie Rusijos, iš jų sudaryta Turkestano generalgubernatorystė su centru Taškente. Kitos Bucharos emyrato, Kokando ir Chyvos chanysčių teritorijos formaliai liko savarankiškos, tačiau iš tikrųjų tapo Rusijos protektoratais. Kokando chanystėje vyko antirusiškas judėjimas, net sklido kalbos apie šventąjį musulmonų karą. Tad 1876 m. rusų kariuomenė užėmė visą Kokando chanystę ir prijungė ją prie Rusijos. Bucharos emyratas ir Chyvos chanystė, gerokai apkarpius jų teritorijas, ir toliau liko Rusijos protektoratais. Jos nebuvo prijungtos prie imperijos.
1878—1884 m. nemaža dalis turkmėnų genčių teritorijos karine jėga, taip pat panaudojant „liaudies atstovų susirinkimo” nutarimus buvo prijungta prie Rusijos.
1885—1887 m. Londone Rusija galutinai susitarė su Afganistanu dėl sienų. Dalis turkmėnų ir uzbekų žemių liko Afganistanui ir Iranui. Kiek vėliau su anglais buvo pasirašytas susitarimas dėl Afganistano ir Rusijos sienos Pamyro kalnuose. Rusija ir Afganistanas pasidalijo ir tadžikų žemes.
Rusų kolonizacija Tolimuosiuose Rytuose
Rusų kolonistai jau nuo XVII a. vidurio kūrėsi Amūro upės rajone. Dėl to kildavo ginčų su Kinijos valdžia, nes kairysis Amūro krantas nepriklausė nei vienai, nei kitai valstybei. Rusijos ekspansiją Tolimuosiuose Rytuose XIX a. viduryje suaktyvino rusų jūreivių geografiniai atradimai šiame regione ir, kita vertus, amerikiečių žvalgomieji žygiai Amūro žiotyse, Anglijos ir Prancūzijos bandymai įsitvirtinti Kinijoje. Rusija stengėsi susitarti su Kinija dėl sau patogios sienos nustatymo ir dėl nepalankios Nerčinsko sutarties panaikinimo. Naudodamasi sunkia politine ir karine Kinijos padėtimi, Rusija privertė ją 1858 m. pasirašyti Aigūno sutartį. Pagal ją Rusijos valda buvo pripažintas visas kairysis Amūro upės krantas, o Kinijai atiteko dešinysis krantas iki Usūrio upės. Didžiulės teritorijos, esančios tarp Amūro ir Usūrio iki pat Ramiojo vandenyno, liko bendra abiejų šalių valda. 1860 m. Pekino sutartimi Usūrio kraštas buvo pripažintas Rusijai ir nustatyta tiksli jos siena su Kinija Usūrio upe ir kitomis gamtinėmis ribomis.
Tuo metu Rusija susidūrė ir su Japonija. Pagal 1855 m. Simodos sutartį Japonija pripažino Rusijai Kurilų salas (išskyrus keturias šios virtinės salas, kurias jau seniau valdė japonai). Tačiau liko neišspręstas ginčas dėl Sachalino salos. Ir tik 1875 m. pagal Peterburgo sutartį Rusijai atiteko visas Sachalinas, nes Japonija atsisakė pretenzijų į jo pietinę dalį. Už tai Rusija perleido Japonijai kaip kompensaciją Kurilų salas.
Tolimuosiuose Rytuose Rusija valdė Aleutų salas Ramiojo vandenyno šiaurėje ir Aliaską. Tačiau Rusijos ryšys su šia valda buvo labai silpnas. Iš tikrųjų ją valdė Rusijos-Amerikos bendrovė. 1867 m. Rusija, siekdama atsikratyti šio turtingo, bet dėl didelių atstumų jai nuostolingo krašto ir norėdama paversti JAV savo sąjungininke prieš Angliją, Aleutų salas bei Aliaską (1,5 mln. km1 2 3 4 teritoriją) pardavė Jungtinėms Amerikos Valstijoms už 7,2 mln. dolerių.
Klausimai
- Kodėl Rusijoje tik XIX a. antroje pusėje buvo panaikinta baudžiava?
- Kokias teises gavo valstiečiai?
- Kokiomis sąlygomis valstiečiai gavo žemę?
- Kodėl buvo įvykdyta zemstvų reforma?
- Paaiškinkite teismų reformą.
- Papasakokite, kaip buvo pertvarkyta karyba.
- Kokias teritorijas Rusijos imperija prisijungė valdant Aleksandrui II?
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