Vokietijos kunigaikštystės po Vienos kongreso
Iki prancūzų okupacijos Šventoji vokiečių tautos Romos imperija buvo netvirta daugiau nei 300 smulkiųjų kunigaikštysčių sąjunga. Ją 1806 m. panaikino Napoleonas, palikęs tik 50 kunigaikštysčių. Vienos kongrese Šventoji vokiečių tautos Romos imperija nebuvo atkurta. Vietoje jos buvo sukurtas naujas politinis junginys – Vokietijos sąjunga. Vienos kongrese vokiečių kunigaikštysčių buvo dar labiau sumažinta. Vokietijos sąjungą, 1815 m. birželio 8 d. pasirašius jos Konstituciją, sudarė 35 kunigaikštystės ir keturi laisvieji imperijos miestai. Centrinis jos valdymo organas buvo kunigaikščių ir karalių paskirtų atstovų susirinkimas – Bundestagas. Po Vienos kongreso kai kurie kunigaikščiai pasiūlė panaikinti vidaus muitų sienas ir sustiprinti ekonominius vokiečių valstybių ryšius. Labiausiai muitų sąjungos sukūrimu buvo suinteresuota Prūsija. Vienos kongrese už Rusijai atitekusią Varšuvos kunigaikštystę Prūsija gavo Pareinio kunigaikštystes ir Vestfaliją prie Prancūzijos sienos. Kadangi šias žemes nuo Prūsijos skyrė vidurio Vokietijos kunigaikštystės, buvo stengtasi visas jas suvienyti. Po ilgų derybų 1834 m. buvo įkurta bendra Vokietijos muitų sąjunga. Į ją neįėjo tik Austrija.
Nacionalinio judėjimo pradžia
Po Napoleono karų ir Vienos kongreso daugelis piliečių buvo patenkinti įsivyravusia taika ir politine santvarka. Tačiau dalis patriotiškai nusiteikusių vokiečių studentų, dalyvavusių kare prieš Napoleoną, buvo nusivylę Vienos kongreso sprendimais, jų tikslas buvo vieninga vokiečių nacionalinė valstybė. 1817 m. spalio 18d. prie Vartburgo pilies buvo surengtas studentų suvažiavimas. Į jį atvyko vienuolikos Vokietijos universitetų atstovai. Šventės dalyviai sakė patriotines kalbas, reikalavo suvienyti Vokietiją. Po Vartburgo šventės nacionalinis judėjimas Vokietijos universitetuose dar labiau išsiplėtė. Bijodamas, kad šie įvykiai gali sukelti net revoliuciją, Austrijos kancleris K. Meternichas pareikalavo sušaukti Didžiųjų valstybių konferenciją, kurioje be Austrijos ir Prūsijos dalyvavo dar aštuonios vokiečių valstybės. Konferencija posėdžiavo 1819 m. rugpjūčio 6-31 d. Karlsbade. Šioje konferencijoje buvo nutarta uždrausti vokiečių studentų sąjungą, o studentų ir profesorių veiklą pavesti tikrinti vyriausybių patvirtintiems prižiūrėtojams. Visi profesoriai, agitavę studentus prieš esamą santvarką, turėjo būti pašalinti iš universitetų. Taip pat buvo įvesta griežta spaudos cenzūra, bendra komisija turėjo sekti visuomenę ir užkirsti kelią bet kokiai agitacijai kunigaikštystėse.
Nepavykęs mėginimas suvienyti šalį
Kai 1848 m. Vieną pasiekė žinia, kad Prancūzijoje prasidėjo revoliucija, o karalius Luji Pilypas priverstas atsistatydinti, Austrijos sostinės gyventojai sujudo. Miesto kavinės buvo perpildytos žmonių. Čia buvo dalijamasi naujausiomis žiniomis apie revoliuciją Paryžiuje ir prasidėjusius neramumus Vokietijos miestuose. Įtampa ėmė didėti, žmonės puolė į bankus atsiimti savo pinigų. Maisto produktų kainos kilo ne dienom, bet valandom. Stiprėjo visų gyventojų sluoksnių nepasitenkinimas vyriausybe, imperatoriui buvo įteiktos peticijos reikalaujant pertvarkyti valstybės valdymą, sušaukti parlamentą, panaikinti cenzūrą ir reformuoti ekonomiką. Tačiau imperatorius Ferdinandas reikalavimus atmetė. Jis nesitikėjo, kad revoliucija gali kilti jo valdomoje šalyje. Todėl 1848 m. kovo 13 d. studentų demonstracijai virtus ginkluota kova, imperatorius iš nuostabos teištarė: “Ar tai vyksta iš tiesų?” Išsigandęs jis tuoj pat atleido iš pareigų jam 39 metus tarnavusį kanclerį K. Meternichą. Žinios apie Vienos įvykius pasiekė Berlyną ir 1848 m. kovo 18 d. demonstracija bei barikadų kova, prasidėjo ir šiame mieste. Berlyniečiai nuo stogų ant kareivių galvų ėmė mėtyti akmenis, pilti karštą vandenį, šaudyti iš savo butų, išmuštruotos kavalerijos gretos pakriko. Generolai su sukilėliais pasiūlė susidoroti bombarduojant miestą patrankomis. Karaliui Frydrichui Vilhelmui IV nepatiko mintis, kad jo valstybės sostinė gali būti sugriauta savos kariuomenės. Jis įsakė jai atsitraukti ir sutiko įvykdyti sukilusių miestiečių reikalavimus. Panašiai įvykiai klostėsi ir kitose vokiečių kunigaikštystėse. Sukilėliai pasiekė, kad būtų pakeisti nekenčiami ministrai, buvo garantuota spaudos ir susirinkimų laisvė, leista išrinkti parlamentus, kurie turėjo patvirtinti konstitucijas. Vienas iš pagrindinių revoliucionierių reikalavimų buvo vieningo Vokietijos parlamento rinkimai. Mažai galios turėjęs Vokietijos sąjungos Bundestagas buvo paleistas, ir 1848 m. gegužės 18d. išrinktas Nacionalinis susirinkimas. 812 deputatų, susirinkę Frankfurte, turėjo parengti ir priimti naują konstituciją ir padėti pagrindus Vokietijos susivienijimui. Frankfurto parlamento nariai manė, kad priėmus naują konstituciją Vokietija bus suvienyta. Daug diskusijų kilo dėl Austrijos. Dauguma deputatų manė, kad būsimą Vokietijos imperiją gali sudaryti tik vokiškos Austrijos žemės. Tai nepatiko Vienos vyriausybei, ir ji atšaukė deputatus. Tuomet Nacionalinis susirinkimas pasirinko vadinamąjį “mažosios Vokietijos” kelią – suvienyti Vokietiją vadovaujant Prūsijai ir neįtraukti į šią suvienytą valstybę Austrijos. Tačiau Frydrichas Vilhelmas IV atsisakė Frankfurto parlamento pasiūlymo tapti Vokietijos imperatoriumi. Nacionalinio susirinkimo delegatams jis pasakė imperatoriaus karūną galįs priimti tik iš vokiečių kunigaikščių, o ne parlamentarų rankų. 1849 m. revoliucija buvo nuslopinta, o Frankfurto parlamentas išvaikytas.
Prūsijos iškilimas
Po revoliucijos, įsikišus Rusijai, nenorėjusiai Vokietijos sustiprėjimo, 1850 m. buvo atnaujinta Vokietijos sąjunga, o vadovavimas jai vėl atiteko Austrijai. Taip tarp Prūsijos ir Austrijos įsižiebė nesantaika. Didėjant prieštaravimams tarp Prūsijos ir Austrijos, naujasis Prūsijos karalius Vilhelmas I nusprendė reformuoti kariuomenę: numatė padidinti kareivių skaičių ir pratęsti tarnybos laiką. Prūsijos parlamentas tam pasipriešino ir pareikalavo sumažinti kareivių tarnybos laiką bei suteikti teisę tik parlamentui tvirtinti karinį biudžetą. Kilus konfliktui, karo ministro patartas, 1862 m. rugsėjo mėnesį karalius atšaukė Prūsijos pasiuntinį Otą fon Bismarką iš Paryžiaus ir paskyrė jį ministru pirmininku. O. Bismarkas buvo pasiryžęs ir be parlamento sutikimo įgyvendinti kariuomenės reformą. Be to, norėdamas į savo pusę patraukti didesnę dalį deputatų ir visuomenės, jis siekė pasinaudoti pergalėmis užsienio politikoje. Pirma tokia galimybė atsirado kilus konfliktui su Danija dėl vokiškų Šlezvigo ir Holšteino kunigaikštysčių. Abi jos pagal asmeninę uniją priklausė Danijai. Tačiau 1863 m. Danijos karalius, sulaužydamas tarptautinius susitarimus, Šlezvigo kunigaikštystę norėjo prijungti tiesiogiai prie karūnos žemių. Vokietijos sąjunga tokį Danijos žingsnį užprotestavo. Prūsija ir Austrija buvo įpareigotos pasipriešinti Danijai. 1864 m. jungtinė Prūsijos ir Austrijos kariuomenė užpuolė Daniją ir keliose kautynėse per trumpą laiką sutriuškino jos kariuomenę. Danijos karalius buvo priverstas atsisakyti teisių į Šlezvigo ir Holšteino kunigaikštystes. Po tokio laimėjimo vokiečių kunigaikštystėse kilo patriotizmo banga. Dauguma vokiečių palaikė Prūsiją. Tada O. Bismarkas ryžosi sutriuškinti Austriją ir įtvirtinti Prūsijos viešpatavimą. Pretekstas kariauti buvo prieštaravimai dėl Šlezvigo ir Holšteino. Prūsija norėjo tiesiogiai šias žemes prijungti prie savo teritorijos. Austrija, priešingai, reikalavo suteikti joms savarankiškumo ir išrinkti jas valdysiantį kunigaikštį. 1866 m. Prūsija į austrų valdomą Holšteiną įvedė savo kariuomenę. Prasidėjo karas su Austrija, kurį greitai laimėjo Prūsija. Ji pademonstravo savo pranašumą: jos kariuomenė buvo ginkluota moderniais ginklais, o mobilizuoti kareiviai į frontą buvo vežami geležinkeliais, kurių Austrija turėjo labai mažai.
Antrosios Vokietijos imperijos sukūrimas
Sutriuškinus austrus, Prūsijai suvienyti Vokietiją trukdė Prancūzija, nenorėjusi, kad šalia jos iškiltų stipri valstybė. Prūsijos ir Prancūzijos karo pretekstu tapo konfliktas dėl Ispanijos sosto įpėdinio. Nuo 1868 m., nušalinus nuo sosto karalienę Izabelę II, Europos valstybės Ispanijai ieškojo naujo tinkamo valdovo. Prūsijai kandidatu pasiūlius princą Leopoldą fon Hohenzolerną, tolimą Vilhelmo I giminaitį, tam pritarė Ispanijos vyriausybė. Prancūzijos imperatorius Napoleonas III tokiam sprendimui pasipriešino. Per prancūzų pasiuntinį jis perdavė Vilhelmui I protestą. Šis nusileido prancūzų reikalavimams ir pažadėjo, kad Leopoldas į Ispaniją nevyks. Bet po to pokalbio su prancūzų pasiuntiniu Vilhelmas I O. Bismarkui pasiuntė stenogramą. Prūsijos kancleris, sutrumpinęs pokalbį ir palikęs tik pasiuntinio grasinimus, telegramą perdavė laikraščiams. Ji, išspausdinta vokiečių ir prancūzų spaudoje, sukėlė pasipiktinimo audrą. 1870 m. liepos 19 d. Prancūzijos vyriausybė paskelbė Prūsijai karą. Per trumpą laiką mobilizuota vokiečių kariuomenė buvo beveik du kartus didesnė nei prancūzų. Įsiveržusi vokiečių kariuomenė išskyrė prancūzų karinius dalinius į dvi grupes. Viena jų buvo apsupta Meco tvirtovėje, o kita, vadovaujama imperatoriaus Napoleono III, Sedano tvirtovėje. Rugsėjo 2 d. Sedane apsupta 100 tūkst. prancūzų kariuomenė kartu su Napoleonu III pasidavė vokiečiams į nelaisvę. Kai ši žinia pasiekė Paryžių, 1870 m. rugsėjo 4 d. Prancūzija buvo paskelbta Respublika. Paskubomis sudaryta nauja kariuomenė drąsiai ir atkakliai pasipriešino vokiečiams. Tačiau Meco tvirtovėje apsuptoms prancūzų dalims spalio mėn. pasidavus į nelaisvę, prancūzų jėgos seko. Nuo rugsėjo mėn. Paryžius buvo apsuptas ir kasdien bombarduojamas. 1871 m. sausio mėn., tik po to, kai buvo suvartoti visi maisto rezervai, išpjauti net zoologijos sodo žvėrys, o gatvių medžiai iškirsti kurui, Paryžiaus gyventojai kapituliavo. Dėl nesėkmių kilo neramumai mieste, vyriausybė buvo priversta bėgti, o valdžią mieste perėmė sukilėliai. Taip prasidėjo Paryžiaus Komunos, kurioje daugumą sudarė darbininkų, kairiųjų partijų atstovai, valdymas. 1871 m. gegužės mėn. Paryžiaus Komuna žlugo, vyriausybės paklusniai kariuomenei šturmavus miestą ir kraujyje paskandinus sukilimą. 1871 m. gegužės 10d. Frankfurte pasirašius taikos sutartį, Prancūzija neteko Elzaso ir Lotaringijos, turėjo sumokėti 5 mlrd. aukso frankų reparacijas. Ši suma turėjo būti išmokėta per trejus metus, be to, per tą laiką prancūzai turėjo išlaikyti okupacinę vokiečių kariuomenę. 1871 m. sausio 18 d., dar tebevykstant kautynėms prie Paryžiaus, Versalio rūmuose buvo paskelbta, kad sukurta Vokietijos imperija. Imperatoriaus titulas buvo pasirinktas neatsitiktinai. Juo buvo pabrėžtas Prūsijos išskirtinumas vokiečių kunigaikščių sąjungoje. Kita vertus, tuo buvo apeliuojama ir į vokiečių nacionalinius jausmus, pademonstruota ištikimybė istorinėms tradicijoms, primenama viduramžiais gyvavusi Vokietijos imperija.
Klausimai
- Kuo Vokietijos sąjunga skyrėsi nuo Šventosios vokiečių tautos Romos imperijos?
- Kodėl dalis vokiečių nusivylė Vienos kongreso nutarimais?
- Kokią reikšmę vokiečių žemėms turėjo 1848 m. revoliucija?
- Kokios priežastys lėmė Prūsijos iškilimą?
- Kokios buvo Prancūzijos ir Prūsijos karo pasekmės?
- Kaip buvo sukurta Vokietijos imperija?
- Kuo Vokietijos suvienijimas skyrėsi nuo Italijos suvienijimo?
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