Reformų Sovietų Sąjungoje būtinumas
Michailas Gorbačiovas gimė 1931 m. Šiaurės Kaukaze, netoli Stavropolio. Baigęs mokyklą jis dirbo kombainininku, o būdamas 19 metų pradėjo studijuoti teisę Maskvoje. Baigęs mokslus jis ėjo įvairias pareigas komjaunimo ir įvairaus lygio partijos komitetuose. 1978 m. Gorbačiovas tapo SSKP CK sekretoriumi, o po 2 metų – įtakingiausios komunistų partijos institucijos – Politinio biuro – nariu
9-ąjį dešimtmetį Sovietų Sąjungos vidaus ir tarptautinė padėtis darėsi vis sudėtingesnė. Dėl įsiveržimo į Afganistaną šalis pateko į tarptautinę izoliaciją. Ekonomikos raida lėtėjo. Prekių deficitas augo. Trūko plataus vartojimo prekių, o kai kur net maisto produktų. Tik partijos veikėjai ir kiti pareigūnai, vadinamoji nomenklatūra, galėjo įsigyti daugiau prekių specialiose parduotuvėse. Vis labiau ryškėjo Sovietų Sąjungos technologinis atsilikimas nuo Vakarų pramoninių valstybių. Užsienio prekybos apimtys nedidėjo. Didžiąją eksporto dalį sudarė žaliavos – nafta, dujos, auksas, deimantai. Mažėjant pajamoms iš eksporto, mažėjo ir importas. Kaupėsi skolos užsieniui. Visuomenėje vis labiau įsigalėjo apatija, cinizmas, girtavimas.
Šalies vadovybė ėmė suprasti, kad norint išsaugoti valdžią, socialistinę sistemą, karinę galią, įtaką pasaulyje, varžytis su Vakarų šalimis, reikia vykdyti reformas. 1985 m., mirus K. Černenkai, partijos vadovu Politinis biuras išrinko jauniausią savo narį M. Gorbačiovą, kuris ėmėsi reformuoti Sovietų Sąjungą. Jo politika vadinama pertvarka, arba tiesiog „perestroika“.
Bandymai pertvarkyti ekonomiką
Reformos turėjo apimti visas visuomenės gyvenimo sritis, bet išsaugoti komunistų vienvaldystę. Pats aktualiausias uždavinys buvo ekonomikos pagyvinimas. Ekonomikos spartinimo planas numatė padidinti įmonių savarankiškumą, teisę prekiauti produkcija, pagaminta viršijus planą. Bet ir tie maži pokyčiai dažniausiai likdavo popieriuje. Biurokratinis aparatas saugojo savo teises. Įmonių vadovai nesugebėjo dirbti šiek tiek pasikeitusiomis sąlygomis. Padėtis prastėjo. Didėjo infliacija, mažėjo eksportas, daugelyje ūkio šakų augo dirbančiųjų atlyginimai, o prekių labai trūko. Todėl teko didinti importą apmokant užsienio kreditais ir parduodant aukso atsargas. Gorbačiovo sumanymas išjudinti ekonomiką nedavė rezultatų. Todėl 1987 m. valdžia leido gyventojams imtis individualios darbinės veiklos. Šis valdžios sprendimas paskatino kurti kooperatyvus. 1989 m. jų veikė 140 tūkstančių. Bet padėtis nepagerėjo, nes kaip tik kooperatyvų steigimas prie gamyklų įteisino neregėto masto grobstymus, žlugdė tas gamyklas.
1990 m. SSRS vadovybė paskelbė apie perėjimą prie rinkos santykių ir įteisino privačią gamybos priemonių nuosavybę. Valstybinių įmonių direktoriams suteiktas didelis savarankiškumas. Bet vietoj pakilimo tai paskatino tolesnį gamybos smukimą, piktnaudžiavimų ir korupcijos plitimą. Valdžios priemonės ne tik nepagerino šalies ūkio būklės, bet ją dar labiau pablogino. Lėtai besiplėtojanti krizė virto griūtimi, katastrofa.
Politinės reformos, tautiniai konfliktai ir SSRS suirimas
Politinės reformos buvo, galima sakyti, revoliucinės. Neatskiriama Gorbačiovo politikos dalimi tapo viešumas („glasnostj“). Žurnalistai ir kiti žmonės, nebijodami nukentėti, galėjo kalbėti ir rašyti apie skausmingas problemas, valdžios klaidas. Visuomenė iš naujo prisiminė Stalino laikų nusikaltimus, mokslininkai viešai prabilo apie ekologines, tautines ir kitas problemas. Tai, ką anksčiau žinojo tik partijos vadovai ir saugumo tarnybos, Gorbačiovo laikais tapo visuomenės svarstymų objektu. Viešumas leido Baltijos tautoms prabilti apie okupaciją, po jos vykusias represijas ir pradėti kalbėti apie siekį atkurti nepriklausomas valstybes.
Naujomis reformų sąlygomis reikėjo pertvarkyti ir valdymo sistemą. Vykstant demokratizavimo procesams komunistai jau nebegalėjo organizuoti tokių rinkimų, kokie vyko Stalino, Chruščiovo ar Brežnevo laikais, kai valdžia iš anksto parinkdavo kandidatus. Jų būdavo lygiai tiek, kiek Aukščiausiosios Tarybos narių. Bet kokiomis aplinkybėmis propagandos priemonės visuomet paskelbdavo, kad už iškeltus kandidatus balsavo 99,99 proc. ar panašiai. Jeigu žmonės nebalsuodavo, tai už juos padarydavo patys komisijų nariai. 1989 m. ši tvarka iš esmės pasikeitė. Rinkimuose į naują įstatymų leidybos organą – SSRS Liaudies deputatų suvažiavimą – į vieną deputato vietą leista kelti kelis kandidatus.
1989 m. pirmuosius demokratinius rinkimus komunistai daug kur, pirmiausia Baltijos šalyse, pralaimėjo. Išrinkti deputatai atvirai kritikavo pačią sistemą ir Gorbačiovą. 1990 m. pradžioje SSRS Liaudies deputatų suvažiavimas panaikino 6-ąjį konstitucijos straipsnį, kuris įteisino komunistų „vadovaujantį vaidmenį“ šalyje. Šis sprendimas reiškė komunistų partijos ir jos Generalinio sekretoriaus M. Gorbačiovo galių apribojimą. Tai turėjo kompensuoti naujos Sovietų Sąjungos prezidento pareigybės įvedimas. 1990 m. kovo mėn. Liaudies deputatų suvažiavimas slaptu balsavimu prezidentu išrinko M. Gorbačiovą.
Perestroikos metu pasireiškė įvairių tautų nesutarimai ir konfliktai. Pirmiausiai jie kilo Užkaukazėje, kur Kalnų Karabacho armėnai ėmė kovoti už atsiskyrimą nuo Azerbaidžano ir prisijungimą prie Armėnijos. 1989-1990 m. Vidurinėje Azijoje prasidėjo išpuoliai prieš tautines mažumas, o galiausiai prieš rusus, todėl šie buvo priversti bėgti į Rusiją. Stiprėjo kai kurių tautų siekis išstoti iš SSRS. Pirmoji apie nepriklausomybės atkūrimą 1990 m. kovo 11d. paskelbė Lietuva. 1991 m. apie savo nepriklausomybės atkūrimą pareiškė dauguma buvusių sąjunginių respublikų, tarp jų Kazachstanas, Uzbekistanas, Turkmėnija ir kitos, kur net nebuvo tautinių judėjimų ir kurias valdė komunistai.
1991 m. rugpjūčio 19 d. Sovietų Sąjungos ir visos sistemos griuvimo procesą, įvesdami nepaprastąją padėtį, nesėkmingai pabandė sustabdyti buvę Gorbačiovo bendražygiai. Šis išpuolis greitai buvo užgniaužtas, jo nesėkmė tik paspartino Sovietų Sąjungos suirimą.
SSRS formaliai liovėsi egzistavusi 1991 m. gruodžio mėn., kai Rusijos, Baltarusijos ir Ukrainos vadovai paskelbė apie naujos sąjungos – Nepriklausomų Valstybių Sandraugos (NVS) sukūrimą. 1991 m. gruodžio 25 d. Gorbačiovas atsistatydino iš Sovietų Sąjungos prezidento pareigų.
Taip Gorbačiovas, mėgindamas atgaivinti ir atnaujinti socialistinę santvarką ir Sovietų Sąjungą, nenoromis tapo jų duobkasiu.
Permainos tarptautiniuose santykiuose
Demokratizuojant SSRS gyvenimą reikėjo spręsti ir įsisenėjusias užsienio politikos problemas. Naujoji šalies vadovybė suvokė, kad senasis šaltojo karo laiką priešpriešos kelias niekam neatneš naudos, kad reikia ir galima ieškoti taikaus bendradarbiavimo galimybių. Mažinti tarptautinę įtampą vertė ir nepakeliama karinių išlaidų našta. Sovietų Sąjunga ir jos ekonomiškai gana silpni sąjungininkai nebepajėgė ginkluote varžytis su JAV ir NATO.
Vos tapęs SSRS vadovu, Gorbačiovas 1985 m. kovo mėn. pareiškė, jog branduoliniu karu negalima pasiekti jokių tikslų ir todėl būtina sumažinti tokio karo kilimo galimybę. Greitai Sovietų Sąjunga paskelbė keletą tarptautinių santykių gerinimo iniciatyvų, sustabdė atominio ginklo bandymus. Jų nutraukimas reiškė, kad atominis ginklas nebus tobulinamas. Šiuos SSRS vadovybės žingsnius palaikė pasaulio visuomenė. Vakarų ir Rytų santykiai iš esmės ėmė gerėti įvykus keliems M. Gorbačiovo ir JAV prezidentų R. Reigano ir Dž. Bušo susitikimams. 1987 m. SSRS ir JAV susitarė likviduoti trumpojo ir vidutinio nuotolio raketas, išdėstytas Europoje ir keliančias didelį pavojų taikai. Mat vidutinio nuotolio raketos taikinius Europoje gali pasiekti per keletą minučių, todėl net įvykus klaidai laiko išsiaiškinti nebeliktų. Pasaulio branduoliniai arsenalai sumažėjo 1752 sovietinėmis ir 859 amerikiečių raketomis. 1990 m. susitarta sumažinti NATO ir Varšuvos sutarties (liovėsi egzistavusi 1991 m. balandžio mėn.) šalių įprastinę ginkluotę 28 proc. 1991 m. liepos 31 d. JAV ir SSRS vadovai žengė dar vieną reikšmingą žingsnį santykių gerinimo kryptimi. Jie susitarė sumažinti ir apriboti strateginę puolamąją ginkluotę. Susitarimas nustatė didžiausią galimą branduolinių užtaisų, tarpžemyninių balistinių raketų ir tolimo veikimo bombonešių skaičių kuris net dviem trečdaliais mažesnis už iki tol buvusį. Nustatytą ribą abi šalys susitarė pasiekti per septynerius metus.
SSRS ekonomikos raida: oficialūs duomenys ir alternatyvūs apskaičiavimai
- Kokia SSRS ekonomikos raidos tendencija pastebima 1971-1985 m ? Ar ji pasikeitė pertvarkos metais?
Italų istorikas apie tautinius konfliktus SSRS pertvarkos metais
1988 metai – pirmųjų tarpnacionalinių santykių krizių pradžia. Tačiau būtina iškart pasakyti, kad pirmasis konfliktas, kurio ilgainiui nepavyko likviduoti kilo visiškai ne dėl prieštaravimų tarp rusų ir ne rusų. Vėlesnis Sovietų Sąjungos suirimas pernelyg dažnai vaizduojamas kaip savotiškas valstybės pakraščių tautų sukilimas prieš rusų viešpatavimą. Nei iš pradžių, nei vėliau nekilo joks tautinio išsivadavimo karas, nebuvo nieko, ką būtų galima palyginti su tuo, kas šio amžiaus viduryje įvyko Azijoje ir Afrikoje, kai prasidėjo kolonijų gyventojų kova prieš metropolijas. Grandininę politinę reakciją, paskubinusią SSRS sugriuvimą, sukėlė dviejų Kaukazo tautų – armėnų ir azerbaidžaniečių konfliktas dėl ginčijamos teritorijos – Kalnų Karabacho (armėniškai – Arcacho). Šis konfliktas, prasidėjęs 1988 m. vasario mėn., nenurimo ligi šiol, nors praėjo keletas smurto, didžiulių sugriovimų ir nelaimių metų Kalnų Karabache gyvena armėnai, bet jis apsuptas žemių, kuriose įsikūrę daugiausiai azerai, tiurkų grupės tauta. Sovietų Sąjungoje tai buvo autonominė Azerbaidžano sritis Tačiau tikrovėje jos autonomija buvo fiktyvi, ypač pastaraisiais dviem dešimtmečiais. Būtent armėnai iškėlė sudėtingą Karabacho politinio statuso pakeitimo problemą ir reikalavo ne savo autonomijos gerbimo, bet teisės išeiti iš Azerbaidžano sudėties ir prisijungti prie Armėnijos, tai yra pakeisti sienas Sovietų Sąjungos viduje. Taip jie susikivirčijo su Maskva ir Gorbačiovu, kuris, beje, buvo linkęs apsvarstyti jų reikalavimus, bet nuosaikesnius. Azerai taip pat nenorėjo jokio kompromiso. Azerų ekstremistų grupės surengė šiurpų armėnų pogromą Sumgajito mieste, netoli Baku. Taigi abiejų pusių pozicijos tapo atviru iššūkiu Maskvos valdžiai, kuri nenorėjo (o galbūt jau ir nebegalėjo) autoritariškai primesti savo sprendimo.
- Ar SSRS suirimą lėmė prieštaravimai tarp rusų ir kitų valstybės tautų?
- Apibūdinkite Kalnų Karabacho konflikto priežastis ir esmę.
- Kaip tautų santykiai buvo reguliuojami iki perestroikos? Kodėl Gorbačiovas nesinaudojo savo pirmtakų patirtimi?
Svarbiu įvykiu tapo 1988 m. pradėtas ir kitų metų pradžioje baigtas sovietinės armijos atitraukimas iš Afganistano. Baigėsi beprasmė, daug žmonių aukų ir lėšų pareikalavusi invazija į gretimą šalį,
Valdant Gorbačiovui išryškėjo ir naujos santykių su socialistinėmis Europos šalimis tendencijos. Vis mažėjo tikimybė, kad Gorbačiovas bandys sustabdyti reformas panaudodamas armiją. Tai leido tų šalių visuomenei siekti permainų. Gorbačiovas nesipriešino abiejų Vokietijų susivienijimo siekiui.
Šaltasis karas galutinai baigėsi ir baigėsi SSRS pralaimėjimu ir suirimu. Tarptautiniai santykiai labai pagerėjo, o įtampa ir karo grėsmė sumažėjo. 1985-1991 m. įvykę pasikeitimai reiškė socialistinės sistemos ir komunizmo žlugimą. Gorbačiovo pradėta pertvarka pakeitė ne tik Sovietų Sąjungą, bet ir visą pasaulį.
Klausimai
- Kodėl 1985 m. komunistų partijos vadovu buvo išrinktas M. Gorbačiovas?
- Kokios reformos buvo vykdomos pertvarkos metais?
- Kodėl pertvarka galiausiai atvedė prie komunistinės sistemos ir SSRS žlugimo?
- Kaip pasikeitė tarptautiniai santykiai 9-ojo dešimtmečio antrojoje pusėje? Kokie faktai leidžia teigti, kad tarptautiniai santykiai iš esmės pagerėjo?
- Pagrįskite teiginį, kad 9-ojo dešimtmečio pabaigoje šaltasis karas baigėsi SSRS pralaimėjimu.
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