Kolonijinės sistemos krizė
Po Antrojo pasaulinio karo prasidėjo kolonijinės sistemos žlugimas. Azijoje, vėliau ir Afrikoje, atsirasdavo vis naujų savarankiškų valstybių. Tai lėmė keletas priežasčių.
Pirma, Europos valstybės buvo nusilpusios, kariauti kolonijose jos nebeturėjo pakankamai jėgų. Antra, daugelyje kolonijų labai sustiprėjo išsivadavimo judėjimai. Trečia, daryti nuolaidų metropolijas vertė būgštavimai, kad kolonijose sustiprės ir ginkluotais sukilimais įsitvirtins komunistai. Šie būgštavimai tapo labai įtikinami po komunistų pergalės Kinijoje. SSRS ir Kinija visokeriopai rėmė išsivadavimo judėjimus, siekdamos „smogti smūgį imperialistams iš flangų“. Todėl Vakarai buvo linkę susitarti su nuosaikesnėmis tautinėmis jėgomis ir patenkinti jų reikalavimus. Ketvirta, dėl karo technikos tobulėjimo neteko reikšmės kai kurių kolonijų strateginė padėtis, o naujų mokslo atradimų taikymas gamyboje leido sumažinti žaliavų sąnaudas ir draugė Vakarų priklausomybę nuo atvežamų iš kolonijų gamtinių žaliavų. Tad kolonijos, ekonominiu atžvilgiu, metropolijoms pasidarė mažiau svarbios.
Azijos šalių išsivadavimas
1945 m. rudenį po Japonijos pralaimėjimo nepriklausomybę paskelbė Vietnamas ir Indonezija, 1946 m. – Filipinai, o 1948 m. – Birma. Šiose dviejose šalyse ginkluotos kovos nebevyko. Amerikiečiai dar prieš karą buvo pažadėję suteikti nepriklausomybę Filipinams ir pažadą ištesėjo. Anglai, nors ilgai delsę, pripažino Birmos valstybingumą. Tačiau olandų mėginimai atkurti savo valdžią Indonezijoje sukėlė karą. Šalis gavo tik ribotą nepriklausomybę, buvo sudaryta Nyderlandų ir Indonezijos unija. Tačiau maža Nyderlandų valstybė nebegalėjo išlaikyti priklausomybėje Indonezijos. 1954 m. unija liovėsi galiojusi.
Vietname valdžią iškart paėmė komunistai ir po kelis dešimtmečius trukusios kovos prieš vietos antikomunistines jėgas bei prancūzų ir amerikiečių intervenciją jie pasiekė galutinę pergalę. Komunistų partizanai po karo ilgai veikė ir Filipinuose, ir anglų kolonijoje Malajoje. Juos pavyko sutriuškinti, 1957 m. Malaja gavo nepriklausomybę. 1963 m. prie Malajos buvo prijungtos Didžiosios Britanijos valdos šiaurinėje Kalimantano salos dalyje, ir šalis buvo pavadinta Malaizijos Federacija.
Pasikeitė ir Artimųjų Rytų žemėlapis. 1943 m. paskelbė nepriklausomybę Prancūzijos mandatinės teritorijos Sirija ir Libanas. Netrukus buvo panaikintas Didžiosios Britanijos mandatas Transjordanijai, kuri vėliau pavadinta Jordanija. Anglai nebegalėjo išlaikyti savo valdžios ir Palestinoje. JTO nutarė sudaryti Palestinos teritorijoje dvi atskiras valstybes – arabų ir žydų. Arabai nesutiko su šiuo nutarimu. Kai 1948 m. gegužės 15 d. žydai paskelbė Izraelio įkūrimą, arabų valstybės pradėjo karą. Užsimezgė Artimųjų Rytų konfliktas.
5-ojo dešimtmečio pabaigoje kolonijomis Artimuosiuose Rytuose liko Didžiosios Britanijos valdos – protektoratai Arabijos pusiasalio rytuose ir pietuose. Garsus milžiniškais naftos ištekliais Kuveitas gavo nepriklausomybę 1961 m., o smulkių kunigaikštysčių federacija – Jungtiniai Arabų Emyratai – 1971 m.
Ypatingą reikšmę turėjo Indijos išsilaisvinimas. Nusilpusi Didžioji Britanija nebegalėjo ir nebesistengė išlaikyti Indijos.
1945 m. pabaigoje-1946 m. pradžioje daugelyje Indijos miestų vyko riaušės, maištavo anglų karinio laivyno jūreiviai indai. Didžiosios Britanijos vyriausybė pareiškė sutinkanti pripažinti Indijai dominijos teises ir drauge siekė ją padalyti pagal gyventojų religinę priklausomybę. Kadangi daug kur musulmonai ir induistai gyveno susimaišę, tarp jų įsiliepsnojo susirėmimai. Dėl musulmonų fanatizmo jie peraugo į masines žudynes. 1947 m. pavasarį Didžioji Britanija paskelbė apie šalies padalijimą į dvi valstybes – Indiją ir Pakistaną, o rugpjūčio mėnesį buvo paskelbta jų abiejų nepriklausomybė.
Deja, tai neužkirto kelio žudynėms, jos dar labiau išsiplėtė. Vien Pendžabo provincijoje buvo išžudyta 0,5 mln. žmonių, o 12 mln. gelbėjosi bėgdami iš gimtųjų vietų ir prarasdami visą turtą. Po tokio kruvino Pakistano atsiskyrimo nuo Indijos jų santykiai ligi šiol tebėra prasti. Jau 1948 m. tarp jų kilo ginkluotas konfliktas dėl Kašmyro kunigaikštystės. Kašmyras buvo suskaldytas; didžioji dalis liko Indijai, mažesnė – Pakistanui.
Indijos suskaldymas sudarė daugybę sunkumų abiem susikūrusioms valstybėms, o ypač Pakistanui. Jis susidėjo iš dviejų dalių: vakarinės – Indo slėnyje ir Afganistano bei Irano pasienyje, ir rytinės – Gango ir Bramaputros deltoje. Vieną nuo kitos šias dalis skyrė pusantro tūkstančio kilometrų atstumas per Indijos teritoriją. Nutrūko susiklostę ūkiniai ryšiai.
Ir po 1947 m. Pakistane, daugiausiai rytiniame, tebegyveno per 10 mln. induistų, o Indijoje – keliasdešimt milijonų musulmonų, išsklaidytų po visą šalį. Priešiškumas tarp musulmonų ir induistų pasiliko, Pakistano valdžia nuolatos skelbė apie iš Indijos gresiantį pavojų ir ginklavosi.
Konfliktas tarp Indijos ir Pakistano kelis kartus virto karu. Taip atsitiko 1948, 1965 ir 1971 m. Pastarasis karas buvo susijęs su įvykiais Rytų Pakistane. Ten gyvenančių bengalų nepasitenkinimas 1970 m. pradžioje virto judėjimu už nepriklausomybę. Jam slopinti Pakistano karinė diktatūra griebėsi pačių žiauriausių priemonių. Buvo išžudyta beveik 2 mln. bengalų, per 10 mln. gelbėdamiesi pabėgo į Indiją. Atsaku tapo partizaninė kova, o 1971 m. gruodžio mėn. kilo trečiasis Indijos ir Pakistano karas. Per dvi savaites Indijos armija užėmė Rytų Pakistaną ir perdavė valdžią jau anksčiau paskelbtos Bangladešo respublikos vyriausybei. Taigi vietoj buvusios anglų kolonijos dabar egzistuoja trys valstybės – Indija, Bangladešas ir Pakistanas.
Greitai po Indijos išsivadavimo Didžioji Britanija 1948 m. suteikė nepriklausomybę – dominijos teises — Ceilonui (dabar jis vadinamas Šri Lanka). Tad praėjus vos keleriems metams po Antrojo pasaulinio karo pabaigos kolonijinių valdų Azijoje beveik nebeliko.
Afrikos metai
Kolonijos Afrikoje ekonominiu ir kultūriniu atžvilgiu buvo mažiau pažengusios negu Azijoje. Po Antrojo pasaulinio karo Prancūzijos valdose Šiaurės Afrikoje, kuriose gyventojų daugumą sudarė musulmonai, prasidėjo prieš prancūzų valdžią nukreiptas judėjimas. 1956 m. Prancūzija pripažino nepriklausomybę Marokui ir Tunisui, bet atkakliai priešinosi panašiam Alžyro reikalavimui. Tai lėmė aplinkybė, kad Alžyre gyveno daugiau kaip milijonas europiečių persikėlėlių, ten buvo rasta didelių naftos išteklių. Ginkluota kova tęsėsi 8 metus (1954-1962). Alžyro sukilėliai kovojo ypač žiauriai, žudė taikius jų neremiančius musulmonus ir europiečius persikėlėlius, bet prancūzų kariuomenės neįstengė įveikti. Tačiau karas Alžyre nebuvo populiarus Prancūzijoje, o pergalės vis nesimatė. Kovose žuvo apie 10 000 prancūzų. Todėl prezidentas Šarlis de Golis ryžosi pasitraukti iš maištingos kolonijos. 1962 m. Alžyras gavo nepriklausomybe, visi europiečiai iš ten pabėgo, nes bijojo masinių žudynių, kurių aukomis tapo šimtai tūkstančių su prancūzais bendradarbiavusių musulmonų.
Vadinamojoje Juodojoje Afrikoje Didžioji Britanija, Prancūzija ir Belgija suteikė nepriklausomybę savo valdoms, kuriose nebuvo ginkluotų sukilimų, o daugelyje – ir aktyvesnių išsivadavimo judėjimų. Jos suprato, kad buvusiose kolonijose savo įtaką pavyks išlaikyti prekybiniais ryšiais, paskolomis, technine pagalba.
Nuo 1957 m., kai Didžioji Britanija suteikė nepriklausomybę Ganai, viena po kitos kolonijos Afrikoje tapdavo savarankiškos. 1960 m. susikūrė net 17 naujų valstybių, tarp jų tokios stambios, pvz., Nigerija (buvusi Didžiosios Britanijos valda), Kongas (Belgijos), Madagaskaras (Prancūzijos) ir kt. Todėl 1960-ieji buvo pavadinti Afrikos metais. Tik viena Portugalija stengėsi išlaikyti savo kolonijas. Angoloje, Mozambike ir Bisau Gvinėjoje įsiliepsnojo karas. Sukilėlius ginklais ir lėšomis rėmė socialistinės šalys, daugiausiai SSRS.
Paskutiniųjų kolonijų išsilaisvinimas
Karas Angoloje, Mozambike ir Gvinėjoje tęsėsi ligi 1974 m., kada Portugalijoje kariuomenė nuvertė autoritarinę valdžią. Naujoji vyriausybė nutraukė karą ir pripažino kolonijoms nepriklausomybę.
Savotiškai klostėsi įvykiai Afrikos pietuose, Didžiosios Britanijos kolonijoje Pietų Rodezijoje. Ten 7-ojo dešimtmečio pradžioje be trijų milijonų negrų gyveno apie 200 tūkst. europiečių persikėlėlių, daugiausiai anglų. Persikėlėliai 1965 m. patys paskelbė nepriklausomą Rodezijos valstybę, kurioje valdžia atiteko baltiesiems. Šios nepriklausomybės nepripažino kitos valstybės, o vietos juodaodžiai pradėjo ginkluotą kovą, pasibaigusią laimėjimu 1980 m., kai Rodezijoje buvo sudaryta Zimbabvės Respublika. Ginkluota kova taip pat vyko Pietų Afrikos Respublikos (PAR) valdomoje Namibijoje. Spaudžiama JTO ir Vakarų valstybių, PAR išvedė iš Namibijos savo kariuomenę, ir 1989 m. šalis tapo nepriklausoma.
Okeanijos šalys, nedidelės tiek plotu, tiek gyventojų skaičiumi, gavo nepriklausomybę be didelių susidūrimų su metropolijomis – Didžiąja Britanija ir Prancūzija. 7-ojo dešimtmečio pabaigoje-8-ąjį dešimtmetį atsirado 9 naujos valstybės, kaip antai Papua ir Naujoji Gvinėja, Fidžis, Kiribatis, Vanuatu ir kt. Lengvai gavo nepriklausomybę ir anglų bei olandų valdos Amerikoje, daugiausiai Karibų jūros salose. Vos ne visos šios naujos Amerikos valstybės yra nykštukės. XX a. 9-ąjį dešimtmetį kolonijomis išliko tik kai kurios vandenynuose išsibarsčiusios smulkios salos. Kolonijų sistema galutinai liovėsi egzistavusi.
Klausimai
- Kodėl Europos valstybės nebegalėjo ginklu išlaikyti savo kolonijų?
- Apibūdinkite Indijos ir Pakistano konflikto priežastis ir jo raidą.
- Kokiomis aplinkybėmis susikūrė Bangladešo valstybė?
- Kodėl Prancūzija nesutiko derybomis suteikti Alžyrui nepriklausomybės?
- Remdamiesi žemėlapiu sudarykite chronologinę lentelę, parodančią nepriklausomų valstybių kūrimąsi Afrikoje.
Didžiosios Britanijos parlamento 1947 m. liepos 18 d. priimtas Aktas dėl Indijos nepriklausomybės
Naujausios dominijos. 1. (1) Nuo 1947 m rugpjūčio penkioliktosios dienos Indijoje bus sudarytos dvi nepriklausomos dominijos, vadinamos Indija ir Pakistanu.
2. (1) Teritoriją [Indijos] sudarys tos teritorijos, kurios buvo Jo Didenybės [Anglijos karaliaus] valdžioje <…> be tų teritorijų, kurios pagal šios dalies (2) punktą turi tapti Pakistano teritorijomis.
(2) Pakistano teritorijomis turi būti:
a) teritorijos, kurios nustatytą dieną priklauso Rytų Bengalijos ir Pendžabo provincijoms;
b) teritorijos, kurios šio akto priėmimo dieną priklauso Sindo provincijai ir Britų Beludžistano provincijai; ir niekas šioje dalyje negali būti vertinama kaip kliūtis Indijos kunigaikštystėms įstoti į bet kurią iš naujų dominijų.
- Kaip galima vertinti Akto nuostatą, jog kunigaikštystės (Jos buvo išsimėčiusios visoje kolonijos teritorijoje) turi teisę įstoti į bet kurią dominiją?
- Kokiais motyvais vadovavosi anglų politikai padalydami Indiją?
Alžyro nacionalinio išsivadavimo fronto atsišaukimas sukilimo išvakarėse 1954 m. spalio 31 d.
Mūsų reikalavimai
Mes nuoširdžiai siūlome Prancūzijos valdžiai pradėti derybas. <…>
1) Pripažinti Alžyro naciją oficialiu pareiškimu, anuliuojančiu bet kokį įstatymą, Įsakymą arba nutarimą, kurie skelbia Alžyrą prancūzų žeme, nepaisydami alžyriečių tautos istorijos, geografijos, kalbos, religijos ir papročių.
2) Pradėti derybas su tais, kurie turi teisę kalbėti alžyriečių tautos vardu, Alžyro suverenumo pripažinimo pagrindu.
3) Sudaryti pasitikėjimo atmosferą išlaisvinant politinius kalinius. <…>
O už tai:
1) Mes garantuojame pagarbą teisėtiems prancūzų ekonominiams ir kultūriniams interesams, taip pat pagarbą prancūzams ir jų šeimoms.
2) Visi prancūzai, norintys pasilikti Alžyre, turi teisę arba išsaugoti savo pilietybę pagal kilmę (šiuo atveju jie bus pripažinti užsieniečiais įprasta tvarka), arba priimti Alžyro pilietybę (šiuo atveju jie bus laikomi Alžyro piliečiais su atitinkamomis pareigomis ir teisėmis).
- Ar pritariate teiginiui, kad reikalavimų priėmimas būtų reiškęs Prancūzijos kapituliaciją Alžyre?
- Ar galėjo europiečiai Alžyre 1954 m pritarti pasirinkimui, kurį jiems suteikė Alžyro nacionalinis išsivadavimo frontas?
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