§ 43. Europiečių gyvenimo pokyčiai XIX a. Blaivybės draugijos

Nuo XVIII a. pabaigos ligi XX a. 8-o dešimtmečio europiečių ūkinis gyvenimas ir buitis labai pasikeitė. Tuos pokyčius sukėlė technikos pažanga, pramonės perversmas, padidėjusi pasaulinės prekybos apimtis, gyventojų skaičiaus ir miestų augimas. Didelė pažanga pasireiškė liaudies švietimo ir aukštojo mokslo srityje. Kultūros lobiai darėsi prieinami vis platesniems žmonių sluoksniams, o ne tik bajorams, dvasininkams ar miestų turtuoliams kaip anksčiau.

Gyventojų skaičiaus ir miestų augimas

Pažangus reiškinys naujųjų amžių Europoje buvo gyventojų skaičiaus didėjimas. Jis skatino gamybos plėtimąsi, teikė pakankamai darbo rankų augančiai pramonei. Tie, kurie nesurasdavo pragyvenimo šaltinių tėvynėje, galėjo vykti į Šiaurės bei Pietų Ameriką, Australiją ir kai kurias kitas užjūrio šalis. Rusijoje nemažai gyventojų kėlėsi į retai gyvenamus imperijos pakraščius. Tiesa, palikti gimtinę ir leistis į nežinomybę būdavo nelengva. Tačiau dauguma persikėlėlių naujoje vietoje ilgainiui neblogai įsikurdavo.

Prancūzijos didžiosios revoliucijos išvakarėse visą Europą, išskyrus Angliją, buvo galima vadinti dideliu kaimu. Didumą gyventojų sudarė valstiečiai. Ūkio pagrindas buvo žemdirbystė. XIX a. labai sparčiai pradėjo augti miestai. Smarkiai plėtėsi ir senieji miestai, ir nauji pramonės bei kalnakasybos centrai. Pavyzdžiui, 1800 m. Londone gyveno 1 mln., o 1850 m. — 2,5 mln. žmonių. Jis virto didžiausiu pasaulio miestu. Milijoną gyventojų jau 1846 m. turėjo Paryžius. Dar sparčiau augo pramonės centrai: Mančesteris, Birmingemas Anglijoje, Reino srities ir Silezijos miestai, kuriuose tada telkėsi Vokietijos pramonė.

Gyventojų skaičiaus augimas Europoje ir pasaulyje nuo 1750 iki 1900 m. (mln.)

Metai 1750 1800 1850 1900
Europa 147 195 288 401
Pasaulis 728 906 1171 1608

Gyventojų skaičiaus augimas Anglijoje ir Prancūzijoje (mln.)

Metai 1800 1850
Anglija 9,2 18
Prancūzija 27,5 35,5

 Girtavimas ir blaivybės draugijos

Didžiuosiuose miestuose ir gyvenvietėse, prie fabrikų bei kasyklų gyvenantys žmonės skurdo ir vargo. Labai stigo pigių ir tinkamų gyventi butų, padėtį blogino nešvara ir alkoholizmas. Ši blogybė buvo baisi menkai pasiturinčiųjų, ypač darbininkų, nelaimė. Neleisdama pinigų svaigalams, darbininkų šeima šiaip taip dar galėdavo išsiversti, o jeigu jos galva girtuokliaudavo, — visiškai nuskursdavo ir badaudavo.

XIX a. 3-ame dešimtmetyje krikščionių dvasininkai Anglijoje ir vokiečių žemėse pradėjo kurti blaivybės draugijas, siekti, kad būtų apribotas arba visiškai uždraustas svaigalų pardavinėjimas. Nors svaigalų gamintojai ir smuklininkai, lobstantys iš žmonių ydų, priešinosi, blaivybės šalininkams pavyko sumažinti girtuokliavimą. Juos rėmė daugelis pramonininkų ir valstybės valdžia. Mat ir vieni, ir kiti pradėjo suprasti, kokią grėsmę visuomenei bei valstybei kelia nevaržomas svaigalų pardavinėjimas ir girtuoklystė. Blaivybės sąjūdis pasiekė ir Lietuvą. 1858 m. vyskupas M. Valančius įsteigė blaivybės brolijų, kurių veikla smarkiai sumažino girtuoklystę, ypač Žemaitijoje.

XIX a. Europos miestiečių ir, tiesa, daug lėčiau, kaimiečių buitį gerino ūkio bei technikos pažanga. Pamažu atpigo plataus vartojimo prekės, kurių vis daugiau gamino sparčiai auganti pramonė, atsirado įvairių patogumų.

Gyvenimo sąlygų ir buities pokyčiai

XIX a. pažangiųjų Europos šalių gyventojai pradėjo geriau ir įvairiau maitintis. Pirma, didėjo žemės ūkio augalų derlius ir gyvulių prieaugis. Todėl vietiniai maisto produktai pasidarė pigesni.

Antra, Europoje plėtojosi naujų produktų, pavyzdžiui, cukraus, gamyba. Cukrus pačioje XIX a. pradžioje buvo pradėtas gaminti iš runkelių. Jo gamyba ypač išaugo Napoleonui I įvedus kontinentinę blokadą. Tačiau ir pasibaigus karams su Napoleonu ši nauja pramonės šaka smarkiai plėtėsi, ypač Prancūzijoje ir vokiečių žemėse. Rinkoje atsirado daugiau cukraus, ne tik atvežamo iš užjūrių. Jis atpigo, pasidarė prieinamas platesniems gyventojų sluoksniams.

Trečia, labai padidėjo arbatos, kavos, kakavos įvežimas. Miestiečiai jau nelaikė jų prabangos prekėmis.

Fabrikams gaminant kaskart daugiau medvilninių audinių, jų galėjo nusipirkti ir nepasiturintys gyventojai. Tad gatvėse ir keliuose vis rečiau buvo galima sutikti skarmaluotų žmonių. Augo ir šilkinių bei vilnonių, audinių gamyba. Daug šilko buvo atvežama į Europą iš Kinijos ir Japonijos, vilnos — iš Argentinos, Australijos. Tik šilkiniai ir vilnoniai audiniai buvo kelis ar keliolika kartų brangesni už medvilninius. Iš jų pasiūtais drabužiais dažniau vilkėdavo turtingesnieji. Tiesa, valstiečiai, auginantys avis ir sėjantys linus, namuose taip pat ausdavo vilnonius bei lininius audinius ir siūdavosi iš jų drabužius.

Gyvenimą darė patogesnį daugelis išradimų bei patobulinimų. XIX a. pradžioje paplito degtukai su geltonojo fosforo galvutėmis, kurios užsidegdavo truputį jas patrynus. Tačiau tokie degtukai pasirodė esą gana pavojingi (neretai užsidegdavo savaime), ir geltonasis fosforas buvo pakeistas raudonuoju. 1848 m. Švedijoje, vėliau ir kitur, buvo pradėti gaminti “švediški” saugūs degtukai. Fosforas, sumaišytas su kitomis medžiagomis, buvo užliejamas ant degtukų dėžutės paviršiaus. Taip atsirado iki šiol visame pasaulyje naudojami degtukai.

Labai pagerėjo būstų dirbtinis apšvietimas. Kitados jie buvo apšviečiami deglais, vaškinėmis ir lajinėmis žvakėmis; pirmosios buvo brangios, o antrosios labai rūkdavo ir prastai šviesdavo. XIX a. pradžioje buvo pradėtos naudoti stearino, o vėliau ir parafino žvakės. Atsirado taip pat aliejinių, o XIX a. antroje pusėje — ir žibalinių lempų su stiklais. Tačiau tikrą perversmą padarė degiųjų dujų, išskiriamų iš akmens anglių, pritaikymas. Jąu pačioje XVIII a. pabaigoje dujiniai degikliai padėjo apšviesti patalpas, o 1814 m. — ir Londono gatves. Iš Anglijos ši naujovė greitai paplito Europoje ir Šiaurės Amerikoje, vėliau ir visame pasaulyje.

XIX a. 9-ame dešimtmetyje dujinį apšvietimą miestuose pradėjo keisti elektros lemputės. Vilniaus gatvėse dujiniai žibintai atsirado 1864 m., o pirmieji elektros šviestuvai — 1904 m.

Gana svarbus buvo fotografijos išradimas. Fotografija suteikė žmonėms galimybę įamžinti save ir savo artimuosius. Ligi tol dailininkų tapomi portretai buvo labai brangūs ir prieinami tik nedaugeliui.

Ryšių tobulėjimas

Dar anksčiau elektra pakeitė ryšius. Jau Didžiosios revoliucijos metais Prancūzijoje buvo įrengtas optinis telegrafas, kuris perduodavo šviesos signalus. Tačiau šio telegrafo bokštų statyba daug kainavo, o signalų priėmimas labai priklausė nuo oro sąlygų. Daugelio šalių, tarp jų Anglijos, Rusijos, Vokietijos, JAV, mokslininkai ir inžinieriai XIX a. pirmoje pusėje pagamino nemažai skirtingų elektrinio telegrafo aparatų.

Tobuliausias pasirodė JAV išradėjo S. Morzės elektromagnetinis rašantysis telegrafo aparatas. Jis sukūrė ir telegrafo kodą (Morzės abėcėlę). Kaip tik šis telegrafo aparatas nepaprastai sparčiai paplito visame pasaulyje. Pirmoji telegrafo linija JAV pradėjo veikti 1844 m., o 1852 m., nutiesus povandeninį kabelį, buvo užmegztas ryšys tarp Londono ir Paryžiaus. Septinto dešimtmečio pabaigoje buvo nutiestos linijos: Londonas—Šiaurės Amerika (per Atlanto vandenyną) ir Londonas—Kalkuta. Ši antroji jungė Didžiąją Britaniją su jos kolonija Indija. Žinios į tolimiausias šalis elektriniu telegrafu buvo perduodamos akimirksniu.

Žmonių tarpusavio ryšius labai palengvino ir pašto veiklos patobulinimas. XIX a. viduryje Anglijoje buvo įvestas išankstinis pašto paslaugų apmokėjimas užklijuojant ženklą ant voko ar kitokio siuntinio. Pašto paslaugos smarkiai atpigo, o valstybės pajamos nesumažėjo. Neturtingieji dabar gavo galimybę bendrauti su artimaisiais, gyvenančiais atokesnėse vietovėse arba net kitose šalyse.

Geležinkelių ir jūrų transporto raida

R. Fultono garlaivis Clermont
R. Fultono garlaivis Clermont

Didžiulę reikšmę susisiekimui turėjo garo mašinos. XVIII a. pabaigoje ir pačioje XIX a. pradžioje išradėjai bandė pagaminti garo vežimus, judančius sausumos keliais. Tačiau visi bandymai rezultatų nedavė. Tik XIX a. pabaigoje išradėjai sukūrė automobilį, varomą vidaus degimo variklio.

Užtat geležinkeliuose paplito garvežiai. 1825 m. pirmoji geležinkelio linija buvo nutiesta Anglijoje, 1830 m. —  Jungtinėse Amerikos Valstijose, 1832 m. — Prancūzijoje, 1835 m. — Prūsijoje, 1837 m. — Rusijos ir Austrijos imperijose. XIX a. viduryje geležinkeliai jau buvo tiesiami Indijoje ir Pietų Amerikoje. Geležinkeliai per labai trumpą laiką neatpažįstamai pakeitė sausumos susisiekimą, padarė jį greitą ir patogų.

Lėčiau plėtojosi vandens transportas su garine trauka. Pirmąjį ratais varomą garlaivį 1807 m. Jungtinėse Amerikos Valstijose pastatė airis R. Fultonas. Po ketverių metų pirmasis garlaivis buvo pastatytas Anglijoje. 1819 m. pirmą kartą medvilnės krovinys garlaiviu buvo atgabentas per Atlantą iš JAV į Angliją. Netrukus buvo pradėti statyti sraigtais varomi garlaiviai.

Tačiau ligi XIX a. pabaigos buriniai laivai dar neužleido vietos garlaiviams. 1871 m. viso pasaulio burlaivių tonažas siekė 15,3 mln. garlaivių — tik 2,4 mln. Tobulėjančios susisiekimo priemonės įgalino žmones daug pigiau, patogiau ir saugiau leistis į artimesnes ir tolimas keliones, keisti darbo ir gyvenamąją vietą.

Pramonės ir technikos laimėjimus, palengvinusius žmonių gyvenimą, lėmė gamtos mokslų atradimai. Mokslui reikėjo išsilavinusių žmonių. Jų reikėjo taip pat mašinoms ir kitiems technikos įrenginiams aptarnauti. XIX a. Europos valstybės ėmė labiau rūpintis švietimu ir aukštojo mokslo įstaigomis.

Klausimai

  1. Kodėl XIX a. kito europiečių gyvenimas?
  2. Ar gyventojų skaičiaus augimas Europoje buvo pažangus reiškinys?
  3. Kodėl XIX a. pažangių Europos šalių gyventojai pradėjo geriau maitintis?
  4. Kurie išradimai gyvenimą darė patogesnį?
  5. Išvardykite svarbiausius transporto ir ryšių išradimus

 

Įvykiai

1807 m. Pirmasis ratais varomas garlaivis
1825 m. Pirmoji geležinkelio linija
1844 m. Pirmoji telegrafo linija

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2019-02-16

201 atsakymų (-ai) į temą "§ 43. Europiečių gyvenimo pokyčiai XIX a. Blaivybės draugijos"

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