- Santrauka
- Sąvokos
Lenkija buvo didžiausia ir stipriausia iš susikūrusių valstybių po Pirmojo pasaulinio karo. 1919-1920 m. vyko karas su Sovietų Rusija. Lenkija planavo sudaryti kelių valstybių konfederaciją, kuri būtų galėjusi atremti Rusijos ir Vokietijos revanšo veiksmus. 1921 m. viskas baigėsi Rygos taikos sutartimi, Sovietų Rusija pripažino rytines Lenkijos sienas. Egzistavo tautiniai prieštaravimai kėlę pavojų valstybiniam vientisumui. 1921 m. Lenkijos Respublikos konstitucija.
Vykdomoji valdžia buvo silpna, dažnai keitėsi vyriausybės, nesutarė partijos. 1922 m. iš valdžios pasitraukė J. Pilsudskis. Tačiau jau 1926 m. gegužės mėn. jis įvykdė karinį perversmą, sanaciją – valstybės „gydymą“ nuo korupcijos, partinių rietenų ir „parlamentinės anarchijos“. Pilsudskio ir jo įpėdinių autoritarinė valdžia dažnai ir vadinama sanacija. 1935 m. – Lenkijos konstitucija įteisino autoritarizmą, užtikrino tam tikrą politinį ir ūkinį stabilumą, tačiau pasirodė bejėgė prieš Didžiąją ekonominę krizę.
Vicepremjero E. Kviatkovskio iniciatyva valstybės lėšomis buvo vykdomas industrializavimas, kuriama Centrinė pramonės apygarda su metalurgijos ir mašinų gamyklomis.
Čekoslovakija turėjo išplėtotą pramonę, gyvenimo lygis buvo aukštas. Parlamentas sugebėdavo susitarti, sudaryti veiklias vyriausybes.
Tomašas Masarykas (1850-1937) – Čekoslovakijos politinis veikėjas, sociologas, filosofas, pirmasis Čekoslovakijos prezidentas.
Didžioji ekonominė krizė skaudžiai palietė šalį, stiprėjo prieštaravimai tarp vyriausybės ir slovakų nacionalistų.
Vengrija 1918 m. pabaigoje paskelbė nepriklausomybė. Jos nepripažino. Antantės valstybės, ruošėsi atimti teritorijas kur gyveno bent šiek tiek ne vengrų tautybės žmonių. 1919 m. Vengrija buvo paskelbta sovietų respublika, tačiau į šalį įsiveržė Rumunijos ir Čekoslovakijos kariuomenės, kurioms pralaimėjo Raudonoji armija. 1919 m. rugpjūčio mėn. sovietų valdžia Vengrijoje žlugo, o prieš jos šalininkus buvo vykdyomos represijos, vadinamas “baltasis teroras“. 1920 m. pradžioje vyko parlamento rinkimai, atkurta monarchija, bet be karaliaus. Vietoj jo valdė laivymo admirolas Miklošas Hortis (1868-1957) turėjęs labai didelius įgaliojimus. Taip Vengrija tapo pirmąja autoritarine valstybe Vidurio ir Pietryčių Europoje. Vengrija, nors regentas Hortis ir jo aplinka nebuvo fašistai, 4-ąjį dešimtmetį užsienio politikoje orientavosi į Vokietiją.
Imigracija – procesas, kurio metu į šalį atvyksta gyventi žmonės iš kitų šalių.
Industrializacija – procesas, kurio metu į gamybą diegiamos stambiosios mašinos.
Komunistai – socializmo teorijos šalininkai, pasisakantys už prievartinį žmonių socialinį sulyginimą, panaikinant privačią nuosavybę ir už proletariato diktatūros įvedimą.
Konstitucija – pagrindinis įstatymas, įtvirtinantis piliečių laisves ir teises.
Pramonė – ekonomikos šaka, kurioje mašinos gamina produkciją.
Regentas – asmuo, kuris atlieka valstybės vadovo funkcijas, kol oficialusis jos monarchas yra nepilnametis, sunkiai serga ar yra išvykęs.
Sanacija – lenkų politinis judėjimas, kuris atėjo kartu su Pilsudskio surengtu 1926 metų gegužės perversmu
Vyriausybė – įstatymų vykdomoji valdžia.
Naujų Europos valstybių problemos
Naujai susikūrusios Vidurio ir Pietryčių Europos valstybės buvo ūkiškai silpnos ir politiškai nestabilios. Pavyzdžiui, nepriklausomą Lenkiją sudarė Rusijos, Austrijos-Vengrijos ir Vokietijos valdžioje buvusios žemės, kurios turėjo nevienodus įstatymus ir gyvenimo skirtingose valstybėse tradicijas. Sulieti jas į vieną visumą buvo sudėtingas uždavinys. Su panašiais sunkumais taip pat susidūrė Jugoslavija, Rumunija ir iš dalies Čekoslovakija. Labai prastai vertėsi taikos sutarčių apkarpytos Vengrija ir Austrija.
Susikūrė tautinės valstybės, bet jose gausiai gyveno kitataučių. Rumunijoje – vengrų, vokiečių ir bulgarų, Čekoslovakijoje – vokiečių ir vengrų, Jugoslavijoje – vengrų. Daugelis jų nebuvo lojalūs naujoms tėvynėms, kuriose atsidūrė prieš savo valią. Kita vertus, pasireiškė prieštaravimų ir nesutarimų tarp labai artimų tautų: Jugoslavijoje – tarp serbų ir kroatų, Čekoslovakijoje – tarp slovakų ir čekų.
Vidurio Europos ir Balkanų šalyse taip pat egzistavo aštrių socialinių problemų. Liaudies gyvenimo lygis visur, išskyrus Austriją ir čekų žemes, buvo žemas, miestuose – daug bedarbių, kaimuose valstiečiams trūko žemės. Ne tik todėl, kad kai kuriose šalyse nemaža jos dalis priklausė dvarininkams, bet dar labiau dėl gyventojų pertekliaus kaime. Šis perteklius neturėdavo kur eiti, nes pramonė beveik nesiplėtojo, o imigracija į JAV buvo smarkiai suvaržyta.
Tautiniai, ekonominiai ir socialiniai prieštaravimai darė sunkiai įmanomą demokratinį valdymą. 4-ąjį dešimtmetį jis išliko tik Čekoslovakijoje. Kitose valstybėse įsitvirtino autoritarinė valdymo forma.
Tarpukario Lenkija
Lenkija buvo didžiausia ir stipriausia iš susikūrusių po Pirmojo pasaulinio karo valstybių. Ji paskelbė nepriklausomybę baigiantis karui, 1918 m. lapkričio 11d., bet kovos dėl sienų tęsėsi ligi 1921 m. vasaros. Sunkiausias ir pavojingiausias buvo 1919-1920 m. karas su Sovietų Rusija. Bolševikų valdžia laikė Lenkiją kliūtimi komunizmui plisti į vakarus ir siekė paversti ją sovietine respublika. Tuo tarpu Lenkijos valstybės viršininkas (prezidentas) ir vyriausiasis ginkluotųjų pajėgų vadas Juzefas Pilsudskis (1867-1935) planavo sudaryti Europos rytuose Lenkijos, Baltarusijos, Ukrainos, Lietuvos ir galbūt Latvijos valstybių konfederaciją, kuri būtų galėjusi atremti tiek Rusijos, tiek ir Vokietijos revanšo veiksmus. Kaip tik todėl 1920 m. pavasarį lenkų kariuomenė pradėjo žygį į Ukrainą, užėmė Kijevą. Tačiau netrukus Raudonoji armija perėjo į kontrpuolimą ir atsidūrė prie Varšuvos. Ten ji 1920 m. rugpjūčio mėn. buvo sumušta. 1921 m. kovo mėn. pasirašyta Rygos taikos sutartimi Sovietų Rusija pripažino rytines Lenkijos sienas.
Tarpukario Lenkija buvo daugiatautė. Lenkai sudarė truputį daugiau kaip du trečdalius gyventojų, kiti buvo ukrainiečiai, žydai, baltarusiai, vokiečiai, šiek tiek rusų ir lietuvių. Egzistavo tautiniai prieštaravimai, kai kurių ukrainiečių ir vokiečių organizacijų veikla kėlė pavojų valstybės vientisumui. Santykiai su Vokietija ir Dancigo (Gdansko) laisvuoju miestu visą laiką buvo įtempti. Lenkams teko skubiai įrengti savame pajūryje naują Gdynės uostą, kuris 4-ąjį dešimtmetį krovinių apyvarta užėmė pirmąją vietą Baltijos jūroje.
Žymaus sanacijos veikėjo E. Kviatkovskio mintys apie padėtį Lenkijoje iki 1926 m. gegužės perversmo
Panašiai kaip ir senojoje bajoriškoje Žečpospolitoje, vis daugiau atstovų, politinių partijų ir klubų, atrodo, užmiršo apie savo garbingą įstatymų leidėjų vaidmenį, bet stengėsi pro kiekvieną plyšį prasiskverbti į valdžios aparatą, norėjo turėti lemiamą žodį kiekvienu valstybės valdymo klausimu, linkę jau patikėti, kad teisė ir konstitucija negali jų varžyti. <…>
Daugelis nepaprastai svarbių valstybei įstatymų <…> keletą metų laukdavo ir nesulaukdavo patvirtinimo. <…>
Keisčiausi parlamentiniai kompromisai, prieštaraujantys bet kokiems programų principams, tapo kasdieniu reiškiniu. <…> Lenkų armijos kūrėjas, jos faktiškas ir idėjinis vadas buvo nušalintas nuo aktyvios veiklos. Gdynės statybos programa, taip sėkmingai pradėta vykdyti 1924 m., įstrigo seklumoje 1926 m. <…> Geros valios žmonės <…> tapo bejėgiai, toje galingoje ir pražūtingoje sistemoje, kuri atėjo nežinia iš kur, lyg seniai praėjusios epochos šmėkla, ir graužė, ir rijo lenkų gyvenimo vertybes.
Ir tą sumaišties bei tikėjimo savo jėgomis praradimo valandą nugriaudėjo Lenkijoje gegužės įvykių griaustinis!
Vienu akimirksniu <…> visa atsakomybė susikoncentravo viename žmoguje Lenkijoje. Pastatė jis paties savo likimą ant vienos kortos ir negalėjo nelaimėti, nes visa Lenkija troško tada tos atsakomybės. <…>
- Kokias parlamentinio valdymo problemas kelia teksto autorius?
- Paaiškinkite, apie kokią „seniai praėjusią epochą“ kalba autorius.
- Apie kokį „vieną žmogų“ kalba E. Kviatkovskis?
- Ar objektyviai šioje ištraukoje vertinama Lenkijos parlamentinė sistema?
- Ką šis tekstas atskleidžia apie jo autoriaus pažiūras?
1936 m. Lenkijos Respublikos konstitucija (ištraukos)
- Apibūdinkite prezidento vaidmenį ir galias Lenkijos valstybėje pagal 1935 m. konstituciją.
- Kokia konstitucijos 44 straipsnio paskirtis?
1921 m. buvo priimta Lenkijos Respublikos konstitucija, kuri suteikė piliečiams demokratinių teisių ir laisvių, tačiau vykdomąją valdžią paliko silpną Seimo akivaizdoje. Dažnai keitėsi vyriausybės. Svarbi politinio nestabilumo priežastis buvo nesutarimai tarp įtakingos dešiniosios tautinių demokratų (endekų) partijos bei maršalo Pilsudskio šalininkų iš kairiųjų partijų ir karininkijos.
1922 m. pasitraukęs iš valdžios, po ketverių metų, 1926 m. gegužės mėn., Pilsudskis įvykdė karinį perversmą, nušalino vyriausybę, kurioje vyravo endekai, ir vėl tapo Lenkijos likimo lėmėju. Jis nebesirėmė kairiaisiais, vykdė vadinamąją sanaciją – valstybės „gydymą“ nuo korupcijos, partinių rietenų ir „parlamentinės anarchijos“. Pilsudskio ir jo įpėdinių autoritarinė valdžia dažnai ir vadinama sanacija.
Pilsudskis neuždraudė partijų, nepanaikino parlamento, kuris teturėjo menką įtaką valstybės reikalams. 1935 m. balandžio mėn. įsigaliojusi nauja konstitucija įteisino autoritarizmą. Jis užtikrino tam tikrą politinį ir ūkinį stabilumą, nors ir pasirodė bejėgis prieš 1929-1933 m. krizę. Lenkijos ūkis atsigavo tik 4-ojo dešimtmečio viduryje. Vicepremjero E. Kviatkovskio iniciatyva valstybės lėšomis buvo vykdomas industrializavimas, kuriama Centrinė pramonės apygarda su metalurgijos ir mašinų gamyklomis. Tačiau pramonės plėtra tada negalėjo duoti pakankamai darbo kaimo gyventojams. Tarpukario Lenkijos ūkio, švietimo ir kultūros laimėjimai buvo nemaži, bet įveikti atsilikimą nuo pirmaujančių valstybių neužteko laiko.
Tarpukario Čekoslovakija: demokratijos sala Vidurio Europoje
Čekoslovakijos Respublikos konstitucija veikė be didesnių sutrikimų, ji išvengė perversmų ir autoritarizmo. Tai lėmė keletas aplinkybių. Čekiškoji naujos valstybės dalis turėjo išplėtotą pramonę, gyvenimo lygis buvo aukštas. Turtinga šalis galėjo Sukurti vieną pažangiausių pasaulyje socialinio aprūpinimo sistemų, įgyvendinti žemės reformą, kuri panaikino stambiąją žemėvaldą. Čekoslovakijos parlamente buvo daugelio partijų atstovų, tačiau jie paprastai sugebėdavo susitarti, sudaryti veiklias vyriausybes. Didelis vaidmuo palaikant tokią santarvę teko įžymiam čekų politikui Tomašui Masarykui, kuris išrinktas prezidentu tik paskelbus nepriklausomybę 1918 m.
1929-1933 m. krizė skaudžiai palietė ir tarpukario Čekoslovakiją. Pramonės gamyba, lyginant su 1929 m., sumažėjo 40 proc., sunki padėtis buvo ir kaime. Atsilikusi Slovakija nukentėjo labiau nei Čekija, kuri greičiau atsigavo po krizės. Stiprėjo prieštaravimai taip Čekoslovakijos vyriausybės ir slovakų nacionalistų, kurie piktinosi savotišku “jaunesniojo brolio“ vaidmeniu bendroje valstybėje, reikalavo Slovakijai savivaldos. Dar didesnį pavojų kėlė vokiečių, gyvenusių daugiausiai Sudetų srityje, nacistai, kuriems buvo vadovaujama iš Berlyno.
Apie Lenkijos kaimo būklę ir problemas
Lenkijos miestuose, ypač Varšuvoj, Krokuvoj, Lvove, Poznanėj, Torunėj, Gdynėj, Katovicuose; žmogus gauni gana gerą įspūdį. <…> Tačiau kaimuose gerą įspūdį daro beveik vien tik dvarai. Dar neblogiausiai atrodo ir ūkininkai Poznanės bei Pajūrio vaivadijose. Bet rytuose, Galicijoje, lenkų ūkininkas atrodo labai menkai. <…> juk netoli 70 proc. visų Lenkijos gyventojų yra kaimiečiai. Lenkija yra žemės ūkio kraštas. Ir ne kas kitas, o kaimas yra Lenkijoje didžiausias rūpestis, didžiausia politinė, socialinė ir ekonominė problema. <…> 8 mln. gyventojų pertekliaus kaime. Ar tai neperdėta? Ar iš tikrųjų Lenkijos kaimas taip kenčia nuo žmonių pertekliaus? <…> Kaimo gyventojų perteklius greičiau yra dar didesnis, negu pateiktieji aštuoni milijonai. <…> Lenkija yra ryškus mažažemių kraštas. <…> Dvarų ariama žemė sudaro tik 17 proc. visos ariamos žemės. <…> iš dvarų anaiptol ne tiek daug mažažemių galima būtų aprūpinti žeme. Apie Galicijos žemdirbius sakoma, kad kiekvienas iš jų dirba tik kaip ketvirtadalis žmogaus, o valgo kaip pusė žmogaus. <…> O mažai jie dirba todėl, kad neturi kur dirbti, kad neturi žemės.
- Remdamiesi šiuo tekstu apibudinkite tarpukario Lenkijos kaimo padėtį
- Kokiomis priemonėmis buvo galima pagerinti susiklosčiusią padėtį?
Čekoslovakijos Respublikos gyventojų tautinė sudėtis
- Apibūdinkite Čekoslovakijos tautinę sudėtį.
- Kokias problemas Čekoslovakijai kėlė tokia jos gyventojų tautinė sudėtis?
Vengrija: nuo komunizmo iki autoritarizmo
Po Pirmojo pasaulinio karo didžiulius sukrėtimus išgyveno Vengrija, 1918 m. pabaigoje paskelbta nepriklausoma Respublika. Jos nepripažino Antantės valstybės ir ruošėsi atimti visas teritorijas, kuriose gyveno bent šiek tiek ne vengrų tautybės žmonių. Nematydama išeities, Respublikos vyriausybė atsistatydino, ir valdžią paėmė komunistai, su kuriais susijungė socialdemokratai. Tarp komunistų buvo daug grįžusių iš Rusijos karo belaisvių, tapusių karštais bolševikų šalininkais. 1919 m. kovo mėn. Vengrija buvo paskelbta sovietų respublika. Jos valdžia skubotai nacionalizavo beveik visą pramonę ir žemės valdas, kuriose pradėjo steigti kooperatyvus, užuot jas išdalijusi valstiečiams. Šios priemonės atstūmė nuo sovietų valdžios plačius vengrų visuomenės sluoksnius. Pavojus jai grėsė ir iš užsienio. Į Vengriją įsiveržė Rumunijos ir Čekoslovakijos kariuomenės, su kuriomis kovas komunistų Raudonoji armija pralaimėjo. 1919 m. rugpjūčio mėn. sovietų valdžia Vengrijoje žlugo, prieš jos šalininkus buvo vykdomos represijos, vadinamasis „baltasis teroras“.
1920 m. pradžioje Vengrijoje įvyko parlamento rinkimai, kuriuos laimėjo dešiniosios partijos, atkurta monarchija, bet be karaliaus. Už jį valdė regentas, buvęs Austrijos-Vengrijos laivyno admirolas Miklošas (Mykolas) Hortis (1868-1957). Jis gavo labai didelius įgaliojimus. Taip Vengrija tapo pirmąja autoritarine valstybe Vidurio ir Pietryčių Europoje. Vengrija, nors regentas Hortis ir jo aplinka nebuvo fašistai, 4-ąjį dešimtmetį užsienio politikoje orientavosi į Vokietiją.
Klausimai
- Kodėl daugumoje Vidurio ir Pietryčių Europos valstybių demokratiją pakeitė autoritarizmas?
- Išvardykite svarbiausius Lenkijos, Čekoslovakijos ir Vengrijos politinės raidos skirtumus tarpukario metais.
- Kokios priežastys lėmė, kad Čekoslovakijoje iki pat 1939 m. išliko demokratinė santvarka?
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