Frydrichas II
Karaliumi Frydrichas II tapo 1740 m., po tėvo mirties, sulaukęs dvidešimt aštuonerių metų amžiaus. Jau pačioje jaunystėje jis labai domėjosi filosofija, istorija, muzika, skaitė ir rašė beveik tik prancūziškai. Tokie jo pomėgiai didžiai nepatiko Frydrichui Vilhelmui I. Sūnui ne kartą teko paragauti tėvo lazdos ir kumščio smūgių. Bet vis dėlto karalius-seržantas privertė savo įpėdinį kruopščiai susipažinti su administracijos bei finansų tvarkymu ir karyba. Įsitikinęs sūnaus uolumu, tėvas davė jam daugiau laisvės: leido susirašinėti su prancūzų švietėjais, tarp jų su Volteru, rašyti eilėraščius ir kurti muziką. Įžengęs į sostą, Frydrichas II toliau bendravo su jais, kai kuriuos pasikvietė į Berlyną, suteikė išlaikymą. Tačiau karalius klausė tik tų savo mokytų bičiulių patarimų, kurie neprieštaravo jo Prūsijos valstybės interesų sampratai.
Frydricho II religinė politika
Švietėjų idėjos darė įtaką Frydricho II vidaus politikai. Po Trisdešimties metų karo visi Hohencolernai — liuteronai — buvo ganėtinai pakantūs kitoms religijoms. Frydrichas II išvis nekreipė dėmesio į tikybos skirtumus. Jis sakydavo: „Visos religijos vienodai geros, kai žmonės, kurie jas išpažįsta, esti padorūs”. Iš dvasininkų reikalauta tik vieno: paklusti valstybės valdžiai. Kai popiežius panaikino jėzuitų ordiną, Frydrichas II suteikė jiems prieglobstį savo valstybėje. Mat steigiamoms mokykloms reikėjo gerų ir prityrusių mokytojų, o tokie kaip tik ir buvo jėzuitai. Savo laiškus švietėjams karalius ėmė juokais pasirašinėti: „Buvęs jėzuitas”.
Frydricho II visišką abejingumą religijai pokalbiuose su juo pastebėdavo bičiuliai švietėjai. Kartą karalius sušukęs: „Visagali Dieve, jeigu Tu esi, pasigailėk mano nuodėmingos sielos, jeigu aš ją turiu!” XVIII a. viduryje Prūsijoje, kaip niekur kitur tuometinėje Europoje, išskyrus Olandiją ir iš dalies Angliją, valdžia jau pripažino sąžinės laisvę.
Teismų reforma
Frydricho II valdymo metais Prūsijoje buvo įvykdyta teismų reforma, uždrausti kankinimai tardant (naudojami norint priversti įtariamąjį prisipažint nusikaltus ir išduot bendrininkus), apribotas mirties bausmės taikymas. Kita vertus, karinė drausmė liko barbariškai griežta: nepataisomiems dezertyrams būdavo nukertama nosis ir ausys.
Mokslas ir švietimas
Karalius-filosofas — taip dažnai buvo vadinamas Frydrichas II, rūpinosi mokslininkais ir menininkais. Jis įsteigė Berlyne karališkąją mokslų akademiją, sostinę ir netoli jos esantį Potsdamą papuošė puikiais pastatais. Tačiau kultūrai Prūsijos valdžia skirdavo nedaug lėšų, diduma ėjo kariuomenės reikalams. Iš esmės dėl lėšų trūkumo nepavyko įgyvendinti ir visuotinio pradinio mokslo.
1763 m. buvo paskelbtas liaudies mokyklų statutas. Pagal jį vaikai nuo 5 ligi 13 metų privalėjo lankyti mokyklą: už šios prievolės vengimą grėsė baudos. Trūkstant lėšų, mokytojų, patalpų ir vadovėlių, statuto reikalavimai daug kur šalyje liko popieriuje, nors atsidarė nemažai naujų mokyklų. Reikšminga tai, kad Prūsija buvo pirmoji Europos valstybė, kurios valdžia mėgino įvesti visuotinį pradinį mokslą.
Valstiečių padėtis
Valstiečių ir junkerių santykiai kaime beveik nepasikeitė. Karalius leido įsakus, draudžiančius valstiečių nuvarymą nuo žemės, bet jo mėginimai apriboti baudžiavą nebuvo sėkmingi. Junkeriai buvo Hohencolernų absoliutizmo atrama, ir veikti prieš juos karalius ne tiek nenorėjo, kiek negalėjo. Jis tik gerokai palengvino valstiečių padėtį valstybės dvaruose. Frydrichas II gyvai domėjosi ūkio reikalais, įsakė visoje valstybėje sodinti neįprastą tada augalą — bulves, auginti atvežtas iš Ispanijos švelniavilnes avis.
Apskritai šalyje karalius Frydrichas II laikėsi „apšviestojo absoliutizmo“ politikos. Tačiau santykiuose su kaimynais jis laužė visas sutartis ir iškilmingus įsipareigojimus, stengėsi užgrobti naujų teritorijų ir plėsti valstybę.
Frydricho II karai
Mirdamas Frydrichas Vilhelmas I paliko gausią, drausmingą ir gerai apginkluotą armiją, tačiau per visus savo valdymo metus jis nebuvo vedęs didesnių karo veiksmų. Tik iš jau pralaimėjusios Rusijai svarbiausius mūšius Šiaurės kare Švedijos gavo Oderio (Odros) upės žiotis su Štetino (Ščecino) uostu.
Prūsijos-Austrijos karas dėl Silezijos
Kitaip elgėsi jo sūnus Frydrichas II, vienas žymiausių XVIII a. karvedžių. Jau 1740 m. Prūsija netikėtai užpuolė Austriją ir užėmė šiai priklausančią Sileziją — tankiai gyvenamą sritį, turinčią turtingų miestų ir kasybos pramonę. Silezijoje buvo kasama geležies rūda, švinas, varis ir alavas, gaminami įvairūs metalo dirbiniai. Austrijos teritorija buvo kelis kartus didesnė, joje gyveno daugiau žmonių, tad Frydrichui II teko pradėti vadinamąjį žaibišką karą (vokiškai „Blitzkrieg’’). Prūsijos kariuomenė stengėsi viename ar keliuose lemiamuose mūšiuose sutriuškinti netikėtai užpultą priešininką, kol šis nespėjo sutelkti visų jėgų. Karas dėl Silezijos, tiesa, truko keletą metų, bet Austrijai taip ir nepasisekė atsikovoti prarastos srities.
Septynerių metų karas ir jo rezultatai
Frydrichas II dar planavo užgrobti Saksoniją ir kai kurias mažesnes vokiečių kunigaikštystes. Su tuo nenorėjo sutikti didžiosios valstybės — Austrija, Prancūzija ir Rusija. Nelaukdamas, kai jos pradės prieš Prūsiją ginkluotus veiksmus, Frydrichas II 1756 m. pirmas metė savo armijas į Saksoniją ir Austriją. Prasidėjo Septynerių metų karas, kuriame Prūsijos sąjungininkė buvo viena Anglija. Tačiau ji kovėsi tik su Prancūzija jūrose ir užjūrio kolonijose. O Prūsijai teko grumtis su trimis didžiosiomis valstybėmis, kurios gyventojų skaičiumi buvo dešimteriopai pranašesnės.
Karas vyko labai permainingai. Nuo visiško sutriuškinimo Prūsiją gelbėjo gerai organizuota armija, Frydricho II karvedžio gabumai, o svarbiausia — tai, kad priešininkai nebuvo vieningi, veikė kas sau, nesutarė nei dėl karo priemonių, nei dėl galutinių jo tikslų. Daugelyje mūšių Frydrichas II sumušė priešus, bet ir pats patyrė pralaimėjimų. Rusijos kariuomenė užėmė visą Rytų Prūsiją su Karaliaučiumi ir net įžengė į Berlyną. 1762 m. pradžioje mirus imperatorei Jelizavetai, Rusija nutraukė karą su Prūsija. Jos pavyzdžiu pasekė pralaimėjusi anglams Prancūzija. Viena Austrija negalėjo kariauti ir galutinai atsisakė teisių į Sileziją. Prūsija atsilaikė prieš trijų Europos galiūnių koaliciją, jos armija buvo pripažinta geriausia Europoje, taigi ir pasaulyje. Pasibaigus Septynerių metų karui, Prūsija tapo didžiąja valstybe.
Prūsijos kišimasis į Lenkijos-Lietuvos reikalus
1763 m. taika nereiškė, kad Frydrichas II atsisakė nukariavimų politikos. Ją jis tęsė Lenkijos-Lietuvos valstybėje, kuri XVIII a. gyveno nuosmukio ir negalios laikus. Didikai ir šlėktos neklausė karaliaus, kariuomenė buvo visai sumenkusi, iždas — beveik tuščias. Septynerių metų kare Lenkija ir Lietuva nedalyvavo, bet per jas, neklausdamos leidimo, žygiavo svetimų valstybių armijos, siaubdamos ir plėsdamos kraštą. Frydrichas II leido netikrus lenkiškus pinigus, jo kariuomenė jėga grobė Lenkijoje rekrutus. Lenkijos-Lietuvos pasidalijimo su kitomis valstybėmis planai Prūsijoje buvo svarstomi jau kone visą šimtmetį.
Stiprėjant Rusijos imperijos galiai, vis didesnė darėsi tikimybė, kad ji visiškai pavergs nusilpusia kaimynę. Tad Prūsija skubėjo tartis su Rusija. Abi didžiosios valstybės kišosi į Lenkijos-Lietuvos valstybės reikalus, užtarė ten gyvenančius kitatikius (protestantus ir pravoslavus), kurie turėjo mažesnes teises už katalikų daugumą. Naudodamasis savo ryšiais su švietėjais, Frydrichas II platino Europoje gandus apie tariamų žiaurų kitatikių persekiojimų ir kraštutinį religinį nepakantumą, kuris esą viešpatauja Lenkijoje ir Lietuvoje. Prūsijos karaliaus pastangos neliko bevaisės.
1772 m. Lenkijos-Lietuvos valstybės padalijimas
1772 m. Peterburge buvo pasirašytas Rusijos, Prūsijos ir Austrijos trišalis susitarimas dėl Lenkijos-Lietuvos pasidalijimo, ir ši prarado beveik ketvirtadalį teritorijos. Prūsijai atiteko žemės aplink Vyslos žemupį, skyrusios Brandenburgu nuo Rytų Prūsijos. Jose gyveno tik truputį daugiau kaip pusė milijono žmonių, tačiau Prūsijos karalystės sritys buvo pagaliau sujungtos, ir Lenkija neteko tiesioginio išėjimo į jūrą. Frydrichas II laiškuose švietėjams svetimų žemių grobimų teisino tenykščių gyventojų tamsumu ir netvarka, kuri ten viešpataujanti. Jis rašė, kad „stengsis tuos vargšus irokėzus pripratinti prie europietiškos civilizacijos”.
Prūsija – didžioji valstybė
Ilgo Frydricho II valdymo (1740—1786) pabaigoje Prūsijos gyventojų skaičius pasiekė 5,5 mln., t. y. palyginti su 1740 m., išaugo daugiau nei dvigubai. Tiesa, šiuo atžvilgiu ji dar toli atsiliko nuo kitų didžiųjų valstybių — Rusijos, Prancūzijos, Austrijos ir net Anglijos. Tačiau veikli administracija, gerai tvarkomi finansai ir, svarbiausia, drausminga ir puikiai išmokyta didžiulė kariuomenė užtikrino jai garbingą vietą tarp Europos valstybių. Kariuomenės išlaikymas surydavo milžiniškas lėšas, bet gyventojams ir ūkiui nebuvo nepakeliama našta. Mat Hohencolernai, palyginti su kitais monarchais, gyveno labai taupiai ir visai nedaug išleisdavo rūmų reikalams, griežtai kontroliavo ir visas kitas išlaidas. Prūsijoje buvo gana daug raštingų žmonių, didelė dalis miestiečių ir valstiečių vaikų gaudavo pradinį išsilavinimą.
Kita vertus, ji liko absoliutine monarchija, valstiečiai toliau vilko baudžiavos jungą, naujų teritorijų grobimas buvo jos užsienio politikos tikslas. Prūsija dalyvavo antrajame ir trečiajame Lenkijos-Lietuvos valstybės padalijime. Jai atiteko diduma lenkų žemių, jų sostinė Varšuva ir lietuvių Užnemunė. 1795 m. beveik 40 proc. Prūsijos gyventojų nemokėjo vokiškai.
Klausimai
- Apibūdinkite Frydricho II asmenį.
- Kokia buvo Frydricho II religinė politika?
- Kodėl Prūsija Septynerių metų kare pajėgė kariauti su trimis didžiosiomis valstybėmis?
- Kodėl Prūsija kišosi į Lenkijos-Lietuvos valstybės vidaus reikalus?
- Kokiomis priemonėmis buvo sukurta Prūsijos galybė?
- Vieni Frydrichą II vadina „karaliumi-filosofu“, kiti (kaip Austrijos Valdovė Marija Teresė) – „Prūsų pabaisa“, dar kiti – Frydrichu Didžiuoju. Kodėl?
1640-1688 m. Frydricho Vilhelmo valdymas
1701 m. Prūsija paskelbta karalyste
1713-1740 m. Frydricho Vilhelmo I valdymas
1740-1763 m. Frydricho II valdymas
1756-1763 m. Septynerių metų karas
1772 m. Prūsija, Rusija ir Austrija pirmą kartą pasidalijo Lenkijos-Lietuvos (ATR) valstybę.
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